Читать книгу Fabrication of Metallic Pressure Vessels - Maan H. Jawad - Страница 14

To provide a background for the remaining chapters, which delve into the details of each aspect of pressure vessel fabrication, consider a large pressure vessel for a process application. The fabrication process flow proceeds as follows:

The pressure vessel manufacturer receives a request for quotation from the procurement organization for a petro‐chemical plant. A job file will be created and a project engineer or estimator will be assigned.

If the design of the pressure vessel is fully defined by the purchaser, including all dimensions, materials, interfaces, etc., then the bidding process will be straightforward. However, if just interfaces and process requirements are provided, then this will allow the fabricator leeway to use its particular experience, efficiency, or capability. Either way a job file will be created to document what is required and what has been accomplished. This allows keeping track of preliminary analyses, decisions, and details, and it ensures that work and research such as sourcing of unusual components done at the bidding stage does not have to be repeated if the company is successful in getting the job.

More sophisticated customers, such as oil refineries and larger chemical companies, may provide a fairly refined design and will often have their own design specification. Such company specifications usually include requirements that may increase the cost of fabrication over that of a minimal design. The further details are usually based on company experience indicating that long term overall costs are reduced by the additional requirements. Others will leave much of the design to the fabricator, just defining interfaces and process requirements such as temperature, pressure, volume and envelope dimensions, and chemical compatibilities. Or they may provide the design of a vessel that is being replaced but still allow some design and fabrication flexibility for the new vessel.

If only limited design information is received, then a preliminary design must be roughed out to produce a cost estimate. Even if the design is fully defined, the fabricator will still need to resolve items including many of the weld details, weld processes, and things such as whether a nozzle is fabricated using a pipe and a flange or a long welding neck (LWN) flange. Not every detail needs to be worked out at this stage, but there needs to be sufficient resolution of the design that a reasonable cost estimate can be produced. Accuracy should be precise enough that the company can be confident of making a profit on the job and at the same time be competitive on price and delivery. Extra time invested at this point can often find ways to keep overall fabrication costs down, resulting in a higher bid success rate and helping ensure that no unpleasant surprises occur after receipt of a contract.

This book will not address the details of developing a bid on process equipment except to note that accurate bidding involves a thorough understanding of what it takes to produce the required equipment, and enough clarity in the estimate to ensure that all aspects of the effort are covered. Fabricators with standard products may use sophisticated internal estimating programs to develop pricing information. Other fabricators rely on the background and experience of their estimators to put together material and labor costs for each and every job, and some use standard industry programs to assist.

Once the order is actually received, the design and process flow will be finalized and a quality assurance package begun.

If not already accomplished at the bid stage, trade‐offs will be assessed, such as stronger material or additional inspection such as radiography or ultrasonic testing to allow increased joint efficiency to reduce vessel wall thickness. This can reduce total material weight and the amount of welding required. Some parts of the design may be decided based on shorter lead times for one option than for another. Some are based on the particular equipment and capabilities available within the company. Others are based simply on cost. After all aspects of the design have been defined, a detailed material list will be produced. This may be done using in‐house or specialized industry software, or it may be done by hand. Any material not available from stock must be procured, and process flow may be adjusted accordingly.

It is usual to identify long lead time items and contract for them immediately. Typically, these include heads (if not made in‐house), special valves, filters, and forgings, any mill orders, anything made of exotic materials, and anything else that was identified during the bid stage as requiring extra time. Some custom manufacturers may stockpile such items as exotic materials and exotic weld supplies in anticipation of future orders to minimize lead time and get an edge over their competitors.

Weld procedures may be developed at this time if they are not available, as coupons can then be produced and tested in parallel with the wait for materials and components without extending the overall schedule.

Also, at this time quality assurance personnel develop plans for the required inspections, tests, and hold points that will take place throughout fabrication. This will include a number of dimensional inspections, verification that reported test results are compliant with applicable requirements, verification of process control of welding and other processes, and review of radiographs and other nondestructive examination (NDE) results. Review by the Authorized Inspector will be included if the work involves an ASME code stamp, which for a pressure vessel it almost certainly does.

Additionally, this is when the layout department is likely to become involved. The layout department personnel have a thorough understanding of geometry, trigonometry, fabrication, and some of the behavioral characteristics of materials while they are being fabricated. They are trained in how to lay out intersections of such items as pipe or cone sections with heads or shells. The layout department will plan for efficient use of materials, produce detailed layouts for the heads and shell sections, mark locations and contour cutouts for nozzle installations, etc. The first part of this effort takes place in the flat, when shell sizes and weld bevels are prepared. Other parts occur throughout fabrication. Shell layout will include allowance for weld shrinkage.

As the material arrives, it will go through a receiving inspection and be checked for compliance with specifications, with material mill test reports and other documentation placed in the quality assurance file. Early arrivals are often stockpiled but segregated from non‐code materials that have not gone through quality assurance acceptance until enough components are available to begin work and continue through the flow without unnecessary starts and stops. Even if shell plates are available from stock, it is usual to postpone cutting them until the heads arrive so that actual head dimensions can be measured, or to request a “taping” (a measurement of the circumference) from the head manufacturer prior to shipping. This allows the shell diameter to be adjusted if needed, from its nominal dimension to permit an optimal fit to the heads. This slight adjustment to the shell circumference is often necessary since it is difficult to bring the head circumference to a precise dimension during forming due to the three‐dimensional nature of the head. The difference is usually fairly insignificant, but even an eighth of an inch (3.2 mm) of diameter can make fit up and welding more, or less, efficient.

The shell sections are rolled subsequent to cutting to size and beveling for welds. Their longitudinal joints (straight seams) will be tacked into alignment, and then welded. The heat and stresses of welding will cause a certain amount of shrinkage and distortion. This may be, to some extent, controlled by alternating weld passes on the inside and outside of the weld. However, if distortion is excessive after welding, the shells will be reworked with hydraulic rams or will be re‐rolled to bring them back within tolerance. Working from the zero point on each shell course, nozzles and other appurtenances will be laid out full scale on the plates, with indications as to weld preps as needed.

The fitter assembles the shell courses, referred to as “courses” or “cans,” to each other and to the heads. Circumferential shell welds are usually welded on positioning rolls to allow welding to be performed in the flat position, which is the preferred position because it is the easiest orientation for producing high volumes of high‐quality weld. Next, nozzles will be fabricated, and reinforcing pads laid out, cut, and formed, then fit in place and welded, either preceded or followed by fitting and welding of supports.

Note that while this description looks simple, the work involves a high level of training and skill on the part of the layer out, fitter, and welder. The fitter has the job of fitting and tacking together the assembly within fairly tight tolerances and the welder must be able to produce hundreds of feet of weld with the least amount of rejectable indications.

Nozzles, for example, must be laid out and then fit accurately in the holes cut in the shell sections, correctly oriented, with the proper projection, and with bolt patterns on the flanges in the correct orientation. This is essential in order they fit correctly with piping that may already exist in the field or that may be assembled elsewhere. The fitter will typically install “spiders” and other braces to minimize distortion such as shells going out of round or nozzles sinking excessively during welding. The welder also has a part, controlling his welding within the parameters of the Welding Procedure Specification, in accordance with which he has already demonstrated the ability to produce top quality welds. The welder also maintains preheat and interpass temperatures and speed of progression, and makes in process adjustments as his experience dictates to maximize productivity, avoid weld defects, and control distortion.

After welding is completed, the welds will be inspected. Common inspection methods include the following:

1 Visual.

2 Magnetic particle for ferromagnetic materials such as steel.

3 Dye penetrant for either magnetic or nonmagnetic materials.

4 Dimensional inspections.

5 Radiography.

6 Ultrasonic examination.

It is usual to do these inspections before any required post weld heat treatment (PWHT), even if they are required after PWHT as well, so that any needed repairs can be completed prior to final heat treatment. This is because repair of a defect found after PWHT will normally require repair and an additional heat treatment. Such additional heat treatment can be costly as well as have the potential to reduce material mechanical properties.

After PWHT and required final NDE, any final machining that is needed takes place. Intermediate machining processes may already have taken place if thick welds require J‐grooves or if unique machining is required because of special configurations. Also, for vessels such as heat exchangers requiring tubesheets or other special components, machining of these tubesheets and components is accomplished in parallel with other work on the vessel.

Next, the vessel will be pressure tested when inspections and NDE demonstrate compliance with all requirements. Pressure testing is done either by a hydrostatic test, which is preferred for safety reasons, or by a pneumatic test. Although failures are not anticipated, access is usually restricted during such tests due to the potentially high levels of stored energy. This is especially true during pneumatic tests, but even though water is considered an incompressible fluid, the energy stored by compression of water or other liquid and any trapped air and the stretch of the metallic shell can result in a significant hazard during such tests.

Once the pressure test is completed and all other quality requirements are verified, the vessel is ready for final cleaning and application of any required paint, conversion finishes, anodizing, or other surface treatments. A name plate describing various vessel parameters is then attached to the vessel, indicating compliance with the applicable code and other requirements.

Finally, with fabrication, inspection, NDE, and testing completion, and coatings applied, the pressure vessel is readied for shipment. Shipment may include low level pressurization with a clean, dry, inert gas, sometimes referred to as “pad pressure.” It is used to ensure that nothing is sucked into the vessel on cold days and to prevent condensation. Shipment also includes blocking or cribbing, special supports, possible packaging, and tie‐down on the truck, railcar or barge for shipping.

Once the product arrives at the customer’s facility, it will often undergo further inspection to ensure that all of the requirements have been met and that there has been no damage during shipping. The Quality Assurance package, when supplied, will be reviewed in detail and placed on file. Only then can the vessel be installed and put into service.