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CHAPTER 1

CHINA PAST AND PRESENT

China has the longest continuous history of any country on earth with a standardized writing system that has been in use since around 1000 BCE. China’s famous historical and mythological figures are well known in and outside of China and Chinese philosophies are revered the world over. The Great Wall of China and the Terracotta Warriors are Chinese icons recognized by everyone all over the world. China’s past has created a fascinating backdrop for China’s emergence in the modern world.

HISTORICAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL FIGURES WHO STILL MATTER TODAY

Although some of China’s famous historical and mythological figures, such as Confucius and Laozi, are well known around the world, many are unknown to us in the West. Many famous and important people from China, is past—from emperors and philosophers to military generals and poets—are still revered in China today.

CONFUCIUS

Confucius (551–479 BCE) is the most celebrated figure in China’s history. He was a philosopher, educator and reformer. His thought and philosophy form the basis of Confucian or Ru thought in China and the entire moral codes of China and other East Asian countries like Japan and Korea. Whereas in the West we follow Judeo-Christian ethics, in China people live by a Confucian code of ethics.

Confucian philosophy is rooted in the concept of ren or compassion and love for others. This involves deprecating yourself as you show concern for others. Confucius’s golden rule was ‘What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others.’ He also believed in the importance of reciprocal relationships: ruler to subject, father to son, husband to wife, brother to brother and friend to friend. In each relationship there is responsibility on the side of both parties. For example, a husband treats his wife with kindness and she, in return, is obedient and loyal. One’s place and status in society are also important. Confucius’s sayings were collected by his disciples and compiled into a book called The Analects.

LAOZI

Laozi, literally ‘old master’, was an ancient Chinese philosopher who is said to have written the short book Dao De Jing (Tao Te Ching), often translated as Classic of the Way and Virtue. According to Chinese tradition, he was a brilliant thinker who lived in the 6th century BCE during the Zhou Dynasty and was from the state of Chu (present-day Hunan). But there is no hard evidence that he even existed. In religious Taoism he is considered a god. According to early historical records, he was a contemporary of Confucius who consulted him regarding mourning and funeral rites. Confucius praised his wisdom. After Laozi witnessed the decline of the Zhou kingdom, he wandered off to the far northwest border of China. There he met an official at the border crossing who asked him to write down his teachings, whereupon in 5,000 characters he wrote the meaning of dao or ‘the way’ and virtue. He is much revered in China as the founder of Taoist philosophy and religious Taoism.

EMPEROR QIN SHI HUANG

Qin Shi Huang (259–210 BCE) was the first emperor of China and ruled over the short-lived Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE). He was the ruler of one (Qin) of seven states in China that were vying for power at the time. He was successful in conquering and unifying the other states and creating the first unified kingdom in China. To unify the empire, he instituted reforms and models, such as standardizing the written script, coinage and axle width, which improved the road system. He also began construction of a wall that later evolved into the Great Wall. For all the good he did, he was a ruthless ruler who regularly executed scholars who did not agree with his policies. Thousands of young men were also forced to work constructing the Great Wall as well as his elaborate mausoleum, which includes the famous Terracotta Warriors.

THE MONKEY KING

The Monkey King is the central character in the classic novel Journey to the West (also translated as Monkey), written in the 16th century by Wu Cheng’en. The story is based on the legendary journey of the Buddhist monk Xuan Zang to India to obtain sacred Buddhist texts. In this fantastical fictionalized account, four guardians accompany him on his journey. One of them is Sun Wukong, a monkey born from a stone nourished by the five elements. He has magical powers that allow him to fly, transform himself into other beings and be immortal. The story is hugely popular all over the Chinese-speaking world and there have been countless adaptations, from comic books to movies, TV series, plays and video games.

CAO CAO AND ZHUGE LIANG

Cao Cao was the emperor of the kingdom of Wei during the Three Kingdoms Period (220–280 CE). He fought to reunify China and was successful in northern China. His forces were defeated by Zhuge Liang in the famous Battle of Red Cliffs but he was never able to conquer the southern kingdoms.

Zhuge Liang and Cao Cao are still famous today for their roles as the principal characters in the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms written by Luo Guanzhong in the 14th century. The novel is part history and part myth. It tells the story of the break-up of the Han Dynasty, the division of China into three kingdoms, Shu, Wu and Wei, and the struggles of Zhuge Liang and Cao Cao to reunite the country. The stories portrayed are well known by the Chinese as there have been countless adaptations, movies, TV series, video games and comic books based on the novel.

LI BAI AND DU FU

Li Bai (701–262 CE) is the the most famous poet in Chinese history. He is as well known in China as Shakespeare is in the Western world. Sometimes referred to as the ‘banished immortal’, he was considered a poetic genius who spent most of his life wandering, indulging in wine and writing poetry. Every schoolboy and girl in China memorizes a few of his poems. He was heavily influenced by Daoism and Buddhism.

Along with Li Bai, Du Fu (712–770 CE) is a household name in China. He is also a Tang Dynasty poet who was revered for his ability to master all forms of poetry. He was a Confucian who lived in a time of political turmoil. He spent much of his life either working for the imperial court or defending imperial rule when in exile. He is sometimes called the ‘poet historian’ as many of his poems are about daily life and current events during his time.

ADMIRAL ZHENG HE

Zheng He (1371–1433) was a palace eunuch, diplomat, explorer and mariner during the Ming Dynasty who rose to the ranks of Admiral. Between 1405 and 1433 he commanded large expeditions that explored and traded with countries in Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East and East Africa. He was undoubtedly China’s greatest maritime figure. At a time when maritime exploration was in its infancy in the West, and nearly a century before Columbus set sail for the New World, Admiral Zheng commanded fleets of hundreds of ships manned by thousands of sailors. His first voyage left Suzhou in 1405 with 317 ships and 28,000 crewmen. Some of his ships were so large that the combined fleets of Columbus and Vasco da Gama could fit on the deck of a single ship in Zheng’s armada. During his various voyages, he presented gifts of gold, silver, silk and porcelain, and in return received such exotic gifts as ivory, ostriches, camels, zebras and even a giraffe. It is speculated that the purpose of his voyages was to expand the Chinese empire by creating tributary states.

Drawing of the poet Du Fu.

Painting of Li Bai by Liang K’ai called 'Li Po Chanting a Poem'.

Detail of Chinese Running Style calligraphy.

HIGHLIGHTS OF CHINESE HISTORY

During the Warring States Period (481–221 BCE), China was ruled by seven semi-independent kings. Each of their kingdoms had its own language, customs and cultural practices. The Qin kingdom in western China along the Wei River, a tributary of the Yellow River, began conquering its neighboring kingdoms. In 221 BCE, the Qin successfully conquered the other six kingdoms and, for the first time, unified the country under central rule.

The king of Qin declared himself Qin Shi Huang or the first emperor of Qin. The name of this new unified kingdom, Qin, was eventually Latinized as ‘China’ or China. The emperor of Qin instituted several changes, including a common monetary system. He also built roads and standardized axle widths, established a common language and writing system and a strong central rule with a well-developed bureaucracy. The dynasty was short-lived, however, as the emperor ruthlessly suppressed dissent, imposed heavy taxes, distrusted the scholar class (even burning books and killing intellectuals who he considered a threat to his rule), and was obsessed with finding a means to immortality. Before the emperor died, he conscripted tens of thousands of workers to build a tomb that included thousands of lifelike terracotta warriors.

An 18th-century depiction of Emperor Qin Shi Huang's imperial tour across his empire.

Terracotta warriors guarding the tomb of Emperor Qin Shi Huang (r. 221–210 BCE).

THE HAN DYNASTY

Ethnic Chinese today call themselves Han after the Han Dynasty. The Han period is considered one of the most important in China’s history, as it was a time when a political system was established that remained intact, with some modifications, until the 20th century. Confucianism became the governing philosophy and helped shape the very character of the Chinese people. This was also a time of great prosperity. During the later part of the Han Dynasty, the capital of Luoyang housed half a million people, the largest city in the world at that time.

One very important development was the examination system whereby scholars could join the ruling elite based on merit. These exams were based on the Confucian Classics, a series of five books that included poetry and history, political speeches and guidelines for ritual practice established by Confucius and his later followers. Those who scored the highest in the exams were given jobs of more importance, such us mayors, governors, even prime minister, and personal aids to the emperor. This system of meritocracy was used in China all the way up to the 20th century.

TANG AND SONG DYNASTIES

The capital of the Tang Dynasty, Chang’an (present-day Xi’an), was the largest city in the world. This was a high point in Chinese civilization, even surpassing the glories of the Han Dynasty. It was a golden age of literature, art, religion and cosmopolitan culture. The Tang Dynasty is best known for its flowering of Chinese poetry. China’s most revered poets—Li Bai, Du Fu and Wang Wei—wrote during this illustrious period. Today in China people still study these Tang Dynasty poems and learn to write in these forms. An 18th-century anthology of Tang poetry has become a treasured book familiar to all educated Chinese. Landscape painting also developed and became important during this time.

MAJOR PERIODS IN CHINESE HISTORY
Shang Dynasty 1650–1045 BCE	The beginning of Chinese civilization and recorded history; walled cities, writing system, practice of divination, bronze technology, horse-drawn chariots.
Zhou Dynasty 1045–256 BCE	Political and social system ruled by the Zhou royal house based on hierarchy; power and land bestowed on aristocratic families, similar to Europe’s feudal system; power broke down among the semi-feudal states during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods.
Qin Dynasty 221–206 BCE	The kingdom of Qin conquers the other six kingdoms that fought for power during the Warring States Period and China is unified for the first time; capital near present-day Xi’an.
Han Dynasty 206 BCE–220 CE	Modified and established the foundation for aristocratic rule; Confucianism becomes orthodox and the civil service examination system was introduced where civil servants were selected through merit; capitals established in modern-day Xi’an, then in modern-day Luoyang.
Six Dynasties 220–589 CE	The empire is fragmented; the north is ruled by non-Chinese invaders, the south ruled by successive Chinese dynasties; Buddhism is introduced from India and spreads; several influential forms of religious Daoism emerge.
Sui Dynasty 581–618 CE	China reunified; capital established in modern-day Xi’an.
Tang Dynasty 618–907 CE	Cultural renaissance, a flowering of the arts and literature; continued spread of Buddhism until suppressed in 845 CE; capital established in modern-day Xi’an; Silk Road and Indian Ocean trade flourished.
Song Dynasty 960–1279 CE	Significant economic and social change; growth in commerce and maritime trade; urban expansion and many technological innovations, including woodblock printing; civil service examination system further refined based on neo-Confucianism; capital established in modern-day Kaifeng, then moved close to modern-day Hangzhou.
Yuan Dynasty 1279–1368 CE	Mongol dynasty as part of their conquest of much of Asia and Eastern Europe; Beijing becomes capital of China for the first time.
Ming Dynasty 1368–1644 CE	Beginning of authoritarian political rule and culture; inward-looking state; growth of commercial sector; vibrant literary scene; capital first established in Nanjing, then moved to Beijing.
Qing Dynasty 1644–1912 CE	China ruled by Manchu invaders; further economic expansion and prosperity; dramatic increase in population; authoritarian structure challenged by military and cultural influences from the West.
Republican 1912–1949 CE	Weak central government after collapse of the dynastic system; continued Western influence and promotion of science and democracy; Nationalist government unable to unify the country because of Japanese invasion and civil war with the Communists; the Nationalists fled to Taiwan after their defeat in 1949.
People’s Republic of China 1949–present	Communist/socialist government; economic expansion; land reform; gender equality; language reform; now considered a world superpower.

Tang court ladies, from the tomb of Princess Yongtai, Qianling Mausoleum, near Xi'an, Shaanxi.

Spring outing of the Tang court.

Buddhism gained a loyal following and many monasteries and temples were constructed during this period. It was also during this time that Buddhist doctrine was modified to conform with existing Chinese thought and philosophies.

The Tang Dynasty was so important in Chinese history that to this day many Chinese refer to themselves as ‘Tang people’, just as they also refer to themselves as Han.

The Song Dynasty continued the flourishing of the arts that began in the Tang Dynasty. New poetic forms were developed and art, religion and philosophy continued to flourish. The invention of woodblock printing led to a significant increase in literacy and many texts became widely available.

The economy expanded considerably during the Song and the country’s population doubled, an integrated system of waterways was built, the first paper money was issued and commerce increased through trading of necessities and luxury goods. This resulted in an urban revolution where 10 percent of the population lived in cities. The last innovation was the appearance of large-scale industry, such as the production of iron. Some have argued this was the beginning of capitalism.

HERE COMES THE WEST: THE OPIUM WARS

Until the latter part of the 18th century, China had little contact with the West. Jesuit missionaries arrived in small numbers in the 15th century but had little impact. For centuries China had contact with other Asian nations, particularly Korea, Japan and Vietnam, but contact with the West was sporadic and minimal.

By the 1760s, tea imports to Great Britain were far greater than Britain’s exports to China. This trade imbalance had to be made up with British silver. To offset the disparity, Britain began exporting raw cotton from India to China, along with an initially small but lucrative trade in opium, also from India. In time, the opium trade, smuggled into China and distributed by Chinese triads (organized crime gangs) grew until by 1820 the trade imbalance switched in favor of Great Britain. This caused a silver drain in China, making it difficult for peasants to pay their land taxes. Various violent incidents occurred which escalated into the First Opium War (1839–42). The British navy proved far stronger than the Chinese and they took control of ports along the eastern seaboard. In the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842, the Chinese opened five ports to foreign trade and residence. These included Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Ningbo and Shanghai. The Chinese government set up an office of ‘barbarian affairs’ to deal with the encroaching Westerners.

The Second Opium War (1856–60) was caused by Britain further encroaching on Chinese territory. With the Treaty of Tianjin in 1858, the Chinese agreed to open ten more ports, allowed foreigners, including missionaries, to travel into China’s interior, legalized the opium trade and agreed to a British minister residing in Beijing.

For most of China’s history, outsiders, whether Asian or European, were considered barbarians with nothing to offer China. It was during the Opium Wars that China realized that its technology, particularly military might, was not up to Western standards. This period in Chinese history marked the beginning of the end of imperial rule in China. As more Westerners arrived in China and trade increased, the Chinese began to realize that a foreign policy of isolationism was not the best way to go. The Manchu government grew increasingly weak and ineffective in ruling a changing China. At the same time, Western powers were forcing China to open up and engage with them.

British troops land at the western gate of Chinkiang (Zhenjiang) during the First Opium War (1839–42) in their bid to secure ports along the eastern seaboard of China.

Painting of fighting between British and Chinese troops at Guangzhou during the Second Opium War (1856–60).

THE LAST EMPEROR AND THE REVOLUTION OF 1911

On October 10, 1911, now known as ‘Double Tenth’, a rebellion broke out in Wuchang in Hubei Province. The province declared its independence from the empire. By December all other provinces had followed suit. A republic was declared, with Sun Zhongshan (Sun Yat-sen), a young revolutionary, as provisional president. However, he was not able to consolidate power and did not last long in this position. By this time in China’s history, the country was fragmented and ruled by regional warlords, former military men under the Qing Dynasty. The Qing rulers appealed to a military commander in the north, Yuan Shikai, to support their rule. Instead, he sided with the new republic and forced the emperor to abdicate the throne. Yuan Shikai ruled first as president, then declared himself emperor (1912–16). His death left a political vacuum and for the next decade the country was ruled by various warlords.

THE FORBIDDEN CITY: HOME OF CHINA’S EMPERORS

The Forbidden City sits at the center of the ancient city of Beijing. Built between 1406 and 1420, it was the imperial palace of the Ming and Qing emperors, their families and other appointed political figures. It was the ceremonial and political center of China until the Qing Dynasty fell in 1912. It was called the Forbidden City because it was strictly off-limits to anyone outside the imperial household. no one could enter or leave without the permission of the emperor.

The palace complex consists of 980 buildings surrounded by a high wall and wide moat. Four towers stand guard at each corner of the huge complex and large gates are situated on each side. The Meridian Gate faces Tiananmen Square and is the entry point to the palace. The complex has an outer court with large ceremonial halls and an inner court with living quarters, kitchens and informal halls. The Forbidden City was named a World Heritage Site in 1987 by UnESCO for its archeological significance. It is the largest collection of ancient wooden structures in the world.

The Hall of Supreme Harmony, the largest hall within the Forbidden City, where emperors hosted enthronement and wedding ceremonies.

THE BLOODY TAIPING REBELLION 1849–1864

As China was reeling after the First Opium War, a young man seized the opportunity of a weakened Qing government to launch the most deadly rebellion in Chinese history. Hong Xiuquan, though from a poor family, received a decent education but failed the imperial examinations twice. After a brief encounter with Protestant missionaries, Hong claims to have met a ‘bearded, golden-haired man who gave him a sword, and a younger man who instructed him to slay evil spirits, who Hong addressed as “Elder Brother”.’ Highly charismatic, Hong convinced people that God and Jesus had appeared to him. Studying with local missionaries, Hong began preaching and gaining converts, openly denouncing Confucianism and ancestor worship. By 1849 he had 10,000 converts and his doctrine was to form a new Christian community in opposition to the Qing government. He attracted young and old, rich and poor, and by 1850 his following had grown to 20,000. He became a significant threat, finally coming to the attention of the weakened Qing government. An attempt by Qing soldiers to oust Hong was met with defeat. Spurred on by this, Hong declared himself the Son of Heaven and his followers the Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace (or Taipings). By the end of 1853 his following had grown to 60,000. Cities were attacked and many fell with little resistance. The Taipings gathered money, food, weapons and followers and seized Nanjing, killing 40,000 Manchu men, women and children, and openly declaring war on the Manchu government. Hong set up a Nanjing-based Heavenly Kingdom that survived for 11 years, from 1853 to 1864. The rule of the Taipings was extreme: sexes were segregated; opium, prostitution, dancing and drinking were banned; money was collectively shared; examinations were held on the Bible; and women were allowed into the bureaucracy. Yet, they failed to win over the residents of Nanjing and the surrounding countryside, who were resentful of the Taiping’s constant need for food and supplies and their strange ways. Eventually, the Qing crushed the Taipings, in 1864.

CIVIL WAR AND THE RISE OF THE COMMUNISTS

The Communist Party of China (CPC) was organized in Shanghai in 1921. From 1928 to 1937, the Nationalists tried to transform China into a modern state based on Western models. This was unsuccessful as there was political fighting with the Communists. In 1931, Japan invaded China. The Nationalists, under the direction of Chang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi), were eager to oust the Communists under the direction of Mao Zedong, but after Japan invaded they were forced into a united front with the Communists against the Japanese. When the Japanese were defeated in 1945, the Communists and Nationalists began a full-scale civil war. The Nationalists had their capital first in Nanjing, then retreated to Chongqing before being defeated by the Communists in 1949. The remaining Nationalist troops, along with many civilians, fled to Taiwan where they set up a government in exile.

Chairman Mao Zedong greeting US President Richard Nixon in Beijing on February 21, 1972, an important step in paving the way for normal relations between China and the United States.

MAO ZEDONG AND THE FOUNDING OF THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA

Mao Zedong was born to wealthy parents in Shaoshan, Hunan Province, in 1893. The revolution of 1911 and other movements during the early republican period had a significant impact on him. These incidents contributed to his adoption of Chinese nationalist and anti-imperialist views. He adopted Marxism-Leninism while working at Peking University. He was an early member of the Communist Party of China (CPC) and soon rose to a senior position. He helped to create a revolutionary peasant army and organized rural land reform. Mao was in charge of the CCP when the Japanese were defeated in 1945. He led the Communists to victory against the Nationalists in 1949. On October 1, 1949, Mao stood at the front gate of the Forbidden City overlooking Tiananmen Square and proclaimed the founding of the People’s Republic of China, a one-party socialist state.

Under Mao’s leadership, radical land reform was instituted, overthrowing feudal landlords, confiscating their huge land holdings and dividing up the land into communes worked by peasants. He was instrumental in industrializing the country, reforming Chinese script, raising the status of women, improving education and health care and providing universal housing. The population of China doubled during his leadership. Mao is not without his critics. Although he is considered to be one of the most important individuals in modern world history, many of his reforms resulted in widespread famine, political chaos and systematic human rights abuses.

Soldiers from the Chinese Communist People's Liberation Army taking over Fuzhou from the Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) on August 17, 1949.

SUN YAT-SEN: THE FATHER OF MODERN CHINA

Sun Yat-sen (1886–1925) was an early revolutionary and was instrumental in the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty in 1911. He was the first president and the founding father of the Republic of China (nationalist China). Revered by both Communists and nationalists, Sun Yat-sen was a co-founder of the Kuomintang (KMT), organized shortly after the 1911 revolution, and served as its first leader. He is considered the father of modern China and one of its greatest leaders. He is best known for developing a political philosophy known as the Three Principles of the People: nationalism, Democracy and the People’s Livelihood. He died of liver cancer at the age of 58 before his political ideals could be realized. He is buried in a large mausoleum in the hills outside nanjing, in Jiangsu Province.

DENG XIAOPING AND CHINA’S ECONOMIC MIRACLE

Deng Xiaoping (1904–97) was an early member of the Communist Party of China and a reformist leader. After Mao’s death, he rose to power and implemented economic reforms that led China toward a market economy. He was the paramount leader of China from 1978 to 1992. He implemented what is known as ‘socialism with Chinese characteristics’. His economic theory and plan became known as a ‘socialist market economy’. He brought foreign investment, limited private enterprise and global marketing to China. He is credited with developing China into one of the major world economies and raising the standard of living of hundreds of millions of Chinese.

US President Gerald Ford in an informal meeting with Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping in Beijing in 1975.

CHINA’S PRESIDENT

Xi Jinping (1953–) is the current President of China and Head of State, a figurehead under the National People’s Congress. More importantly, he has served as General Secretary of the Central Committee since November 2012. This is the highest position within China’s Communist Party structure and is widely considered the most powerful position in the country. He also serves as Commander in Chief of the joint battle command center, which ensures that he enjoys the support of China’s military. He is originally from Beijing and studied engineering and law at the prestigious Qinghua University.

Xi Jinping, China’s current President and Head of State since 2013. He served as Vice President from 2008 to 2013.

The Oriental Pearl Radio and TV Tower by the side of the Huangpu River in Pudong, opposite the Bund, is another distinctive landmark.

Three mega skyscrapers in the Pudong district of Shanghai: The Shanghai World Financial Center, Jinmao Tower and Shanghai Tower.

THE CHINESE LANGUAGE

To an outsider, the written Chinese language may seem like indecipherable chicken scratchings, but a language that has been in continuous use for thousands of years certainly makes sense to 1.3 billion Chinese. It is true that Chinese is vastly different from Western languages and it does take rigorous study to master. But it is a fascinating language to learn, spoken by more people than any other language.

THE WORLD’S FIRST WRITING

China has the world’s oldest writing system still in use. There are older systems, such as Egyptian hieroglyphics and the Sumerian Cuneiform script, but they fell out of use long ago. The Chinese writing system that we can trace back to 1200 BCE is still recognizable to those who know Chinese. Although the system has evolved over time, it is still based on Chinese characters.

The earliest Chinese characters were written on the shoulder bones of oxen and on turtle shells. These early characters were used in divination ceremonies to predict the future. They are commonly referred to as ‘oracle bones’. The vast majority of these bones date to the Shang Dynasty (1650–1045 BCE). Most of the characters are pictographs, stylized pictures of an object such as a tiger, a table, an eye or a horse.

By the Zhou Dynasty (1045–256 BCE), Chinese characters were being cast onto bronze vessels. The earliest Chinese books consisted of bamboo slats with a row of Chinese characters written on them vertically. These slats were then lashed together to form a book. Later, Chinese was written on silk scrolls, then finally on paper.

Oracle bone writing or jiaguwen. This is the earliest form of writing in China dating to as early as 1045 BCE. These characters were carved on the shoulder bones of oxen and on turtle shells.

CLASSICAL CHINESE

Early in Chinese history, the language already consisted of various spoken dialects. When the writing system was developed, a standard written form was promoted from as early as the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE) in an attempt to unite the various kingdoms of the time. This writing system evolved into a written form called ‘literary’ or ‘classical’ Chinese. It was based on a spoken dialect but was not associated with any particular one. Over time, the written language and spoken varieties of Chinese grew apart until the situation was similar to the use of Latin in ancient Europe, where Latin was used for written documents but people continued to speak different languages. Classical Chinese was the written standard that all educated people used for written communication and literature of all kinds, but which no one spoke. This classical language was commonly used until the early part of the 20th century.

This literary language became canonized with the introduction of the Confucian Classics. These writings consisted of works that were associated with a classical education. Originally, they consisted of five books that were promoted by scholars as the most important works of literature with the power to improve the common man. We don’t know the authors of these books, but they were studied religiously by the scholar-élite ruling class in China.

Chinese calligraphy scrolls displayed in the National Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan.

The Book of Songs A collection of 305 songs or poems from the 10th to 7th centuries BCE, allegedly compiled by Confucius.

The Book of History A record of events in ancient China, some as early as the 11th century BCE.

The Book of Rites Written in the Han Dynasty, it describes the social customs, administration and ceremonial rites of the Zhou Dynasty (1045–256 BCE).

The Book of Changes A divination manual that dates back as far as 1000 BCE.

Spring and Autumn Annals A history of the State of Lu (722–481 BCE), the kingdom Confucius came from.

During the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), four additional books were added to the canon. These were works compiled by disciples of Confucius. Further expounding on Confucian doctrine and ideals, the books were all written before 206 BCE.

The Great Learning Originally a chapter in the Book of Rites, said to be written by Confucius, it also contains commentary by one of Confucius’s disciples.

Doctrine of the Mean Another chapter from the Book of Rites, attributed to Confucius’s grandson, it describes how to attain perfect unity in society.

Analects of Confucius A compilation of sayings by Confucius and his disciples, the Analects is heavily influenced by the philosophy and moral values of China.

Mencius A collection of conversations that Mencius, a disciple of Confucius’s grandson, had with kings of the time.

These important books became known as the Five Classics and the Four Books. They formed the cornerstone of the Chinese education system beginning shortly after the Han Dynasty up to the beginning of the 20th century. What this means is that anyone who was educated in China was well versed in these classics. The classics also became the curriculum of the Civil Service Examination System, which began in a limited way during the Han Dynasty up until the end of the imperial dynastic period. A system of exams based on knowledge of these classics was instituted to select those who would serve as administrative officials. The better one performed in the exams, the higher and more important the administrative assignment one received.

CRAP EGGS WITH BAMBOO FLAVOR A TASTE OF CHINGLISH

With increasing globalization, the Chinese are making enormous efforts to appear international and sophisticated by translating street signs, menus and other signages into English. They also want to help English-speaking visitors to China. A hotel that has English signage will appeal more to foreigners but also to well-heeled Chinese. The demand, unfortunately, has far outpaced those qualified to do these translations, often leading to hilarious results. I was recently staying at a Chinese hotel that caters to Chinese business people and Chinese tour groups. At the typical breakfast buffet, often provided to attract customers, was a small placard next to each menu item in both Chinese and English. I came across this one:

PAN TRY BREAKFAST BOWEL

This did not sound too appetizing knowing how much the Chinese love to eat entrails. But after lifting the lid on the dish, I discovered it was sausage. The literal translation of the Chinese would be something like ‘Fragrant-fry-breakfast-intestine’. A more appropriate translation would simply be ‘Pan-fried breakfast sausage’.

Sometimes a single misplaced letter can make all the difference. Crap eggs are actually crab eggs or roe.

Here are a few others:

CAREFUL LANDSLIP

SLIP AND FALL DOWN CAREFULLY

DON’T FORGET TO CARRY YOUR THING

DEFORMED MAN TOILET

RACIST PARK

EXECUTION IN PROGRESS

MANDARIN OR CANTONESE?

Although referred to as ‘dialects’, the languages of China are like the languages of Europe, really distinct languages though related to one another and having many common features.

People in Cantonese-speaking areas such as Guangzhou or Hong Kong speak mainly Cantonese. But in northern China or Taiwan, they say that Chinese is Mandarin. The answer is that both languages are forms of Chinese. In fact, there are seven main language groups in China, each with its distinct pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar. To make matters even more complicated, there are literally hundreds of regional dialects within each of these groups. What makes the language situation in China really complex is that these languages are not mutually intelligible. For example, a Beijing speaker of Mandarin (or more precisely the Beijing dialect of Mandarin) cannot understand the Cantonese spoken in the far south of the country.

THE SEVEN MAIN CHINESE LANGUAGES GROUPS

Mandarin (836 million speakers). Spoken in a broad arc from the northeast to the southwest. Beijing dialect is the prestige dialect.

Wu (77 million speakers). Spoken in Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces. Shanghainese is the prestige dialect.

Yue or Cantonese (71 million speakers). Spoken in Guangdong and Guangxi provinces as well as in Hong Kong, Macau and parts of Southeast Asia and among many overseas Chinese communities. Guangzhou and Hong Kong Cantonese are the prestige dialects.

Min (60 million speakers). Spoken in Fujian Province, Taiwan and parts of Southeast Asia and in some overseas communities.

Xiang or Hunanese (36 million speakers). Spoken in Hunan Province. Chang-sha dialect is the prestige one.

Hakka (34 million speakers). Spoken in pockets of numerous provinces in southern China, Taiwan and parts of Southeast Asia.

Gan (31 million speakers). Spoken in Jiangxi Province.

THE LIFE OF MA: MOTHER, HEMP, HORSE, CURSE

Chinese is a tonal language. Different pitches or intonations are attached to a syllable to give it a distinct meaning. Different words may have the same sound (i.e. homophones) but the different pitches give them different meanings. Take, for example, the syllable mā.

Mā (妈) with a high level tone means ‘mother’

Má (麻) with a rising intonation means ‘hemp’

Mǎ (马) with a falling then rising intonation means ‘horse’

Mà (骂) with a sharply falling intonation means ‘curse’

Because Chinese has relatively few sound combinations (only 413), the addition of four tones to each sound combination allows for a much richer language. This is not to say that there are only 1,652 words in Chinese as there are many homophones as well. In fact, when you look up a word in the dictionary, let’s say the word fàn, you will get several different words, such as ‘cooked rice’, ‘to violate’, to float’, ‘a surname’, and so on. The words are distinguished by how they are written. Each word is written with a different character.

It is extremely important when speaking Chinese to pronounce words with the correct tonal contour or you might be saying something that you didn't intend.

THE COMMON LANGUAGE

Mandarin Chinese is considered ‘standard Chinese’ or the ‘common language’ (putonghua) because it is the language of the central government, commerce, education, the media and so on. All children learn Mandarin at school, thus anyone with some education can speak and understand Mandarin. Mandarin Chinese is also the language taught and learned by foreigners. Learning Mandarin Chinese enables the visitor to China to communicate with educated people all over China.

CHINESE CHARACTERS

It is commonly believed that Chinese characters are composed of little pictures that represent ideas. While this may have been true in the early stages of the Chinese writing system, today less than 2 percent of Chinese characters are pictographic in nature. It is true, however, that there is no alphabet in Chinese and characters have to be memorized. This is the greatest challenge in learning Chinese, even for native speakers. Chinese children spend countless hours memorizing characters and practicing writing them. Although there are nearly 50,000 Chinese characters in the largest dictionaries, about 2,000 are commonly used by educated people.

Most Chinese characters have a radical, which gives an indication of the meaning, and a phonetic component that gives an idea of how to pronounce it. Sometimes this phonetic component is an exact representation and sometimes an approximation. Here are some examples:

河 This is the character for ‘river’ and is pronounced hé.

The component on the left side of the character, the three dots (氵), are the radical and mean ‘water’. This indicates that this character (or word) has something to do with water. The component on the right side of the character (可) is the phonetic and is pronounced kě. As you can see, the vowel sound in this component is retained in the pronunciation of the word hé.

湖 This is the character for ‘lake’ and is pronounced hú.

As you can see, the component on the left is the water radical (氵), so we know this character has something to do with water. The phonetic component on the right is pronounced hú (胡), which is an exact match for the pronunciation of the word.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A WORD AND A CHARACTER

All characters in Chinese are pronounced as a single syllable. Some words consist of a single character but most have two characters and occasionally three or more. Learning the characters, then, is only part of the job of learning Chinese. One must also learn word combinations in order to become literate. In a Chinese text, all characters are written equidistant apart. Traditionally, Chinese was written top to bottom and right to left. Nowadays, it is written like English, from top to bottom and left to write.

Single character words:

我 wǒ I, me

书 shū book

姜 jiāng ginger

Multisyllabic words:

老师 lǎo shī teacher

书桌 shū zhuō desk

筷子 kuài zi chopsticks

Traditional Chinese writing tools: ink stone, brush stand and brushes.

The Chinese character fo for 'Buddha'.

CHINA’S MANY RELIGIOUS AND PHILOSOPHICAL TRADITIONS

There are two religious and philosophical traditions native to China: Confucianism and Taoism. Both have their beginnings in the 5th to 6th centuries BCE. Buddhism has also shaped Chinese culture. Elements of these are incorporated into folk religion and ancestor worship, which include respect for the forces of nature, ancestors, gods of human groups and figures from mythology.

Confucianism is not only considered a religion and philosophy but also a worldview, social ethic, political ideology and scholarly tradition. Confucius (551–479 BCE) lived in a time of political turmoil, violence and social disintegration. He spent his life trying to persuade the leaders of the various kingdoms in China to try out his political reforms. These were really more about how to get along with others peacefully than about politics. To Confucius, politics meant moral persuasion. The core of Confucianism is thus humanistic, with particular emphasis on the importance of the family and social harmony. In particular, Confucian doctrine is based on the Five Relationships—reciprocal relationships that if adhered to bring peace and prosperity. Inferiors must be subject to superiors, but those superiors have a responsibility to care for their inferiors. The relationships emphasize respect by the younger for the older and by women for men. But there is a responsibility on both sides that are mutually beneficial.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CONFUCIANISM

Benevolence (ren) 仁

Also described as human-heartedness, this carries the idea of being kind and respectful to others. The supreme moral achievement in life is excellence of character, to become a gentleman.

The Gentleman (junzi) 君子

The ultimate individual (‘superior person’) attains nobility through character rather than inheritance.

Filial Piety (xiao)

This refers to unquestioned loyalty and respect for elders, especially parents and grandparents.

The character for filial piety (xiao).

THE VALUE OF EDUCATION

To Confucius, the purpose of government was not only to provide food and protection but also to educate. Education became a serious focus of Confucian thought. By 50 BCE, enrollment in the state university was 3,000, but by 1 CE all bureaucratic positions in the government were staffed by those with a Confucian education. In the year 58 CE, all government schools were required to make sacrifices to Confucius. Toward the end of the Han Dynasty, up to 30,000 students attended the Imperial University and a Confucian temple eventually stood in all of China’s 2,000 counties.

The curriculum for a Confucian education comprised the Five Classics and Four Books (see pages 18–19). These nine books espoused Confucian thought and practices. The Five Classics are said to have been compiled by Confucius himself, whereas the Four Books were compiled by his disciples.

This Confucian education system began in the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) and was in place until the early part of the 20th century. What this means is that anyone who was educated in China was thoroughly familiar with Confucian ideals and practices.

THE FIVE CONFUCIAN RELATIONSHIPS

Ruler to subject If a ruler is kind and cares about his subjects, the people, in turn, will be loyal.

Father to son If a father cares for his son and treats him well, his son will be obedient and want to care for his father.

Elder brother to younger brother If an elder brother treats his younger brother with kindness, the younger brother will respect the elder.

Husband to wife If a husband takes care of his wife, she will, in turn, be loyal to him.

Friend to friend Friends treat each other with mutual respect and kindness.

Confucius believed that if we treat each other with respect and dignity, then everyone will benefit. He advocated self-cultivation. If you want to change society, you must begin by changing yourself. Your actions will then influence those around you and extend from your immediate community to the city, to the state and, eventually, to the whole country.

TAOISM

Taoist thought pervades Chinese society. At the core of Taoism, which links Confucian tradition with folk traditions, is a book regarded by many as scripture, the Dao De Jing (Tao Te Ching) (Classic of the Way and Virtue). Tradition has it that it was written by Laozi (‘the old one’), but in fact scholars are unsure who the author is. It was originally meant as a handbook for rulers. Ideal Taoism describes a sage whose actions are so unnoticed that his very existence is unsure. The term dao, meaning ‘way’, has been used by all other religious and philosophical traditions in China, including Confucianism and Buddhism.

Taoism is all about the natural order of things. In fact, civilization is a corruption of the natural order, thus reform for the Taoist is to look to the past and the ideals established then. It is about maintaining balance and order according to natural laws. Taoism emphasizes spontaneity and non-interference by letting things take their natural course.

Taoism is sometimes regarded as passive and lacking in strength and vigor. But the Taoist would respond by using the analogy of water. Though water seems weak (not hard), it carves great canyons in the earth by following a natural course.

Taiwan has a thriving Taoist community with Taoist temples dotting the island. Religious Taoism was suppressed by the Communists in mainland China when they came to power, but in recent years there has been a surge in interest in and tolerance for Chinese religions in the country, among them Taoism.

A priest conducting a Taoist rite at a temple. Taoism is one of five religions officially recognized by China.

PRINCIPLES OF TAOISM: HARMONY YIN AND YANG

Yin refers to darkness and yang to light. They represent harmony in the universe, that everything has an opposite force. They are not considered positive or negative but complimentary, independent forces. A fruitful and happy life lies in having a proper balance of all things, such as food, exercise and sleep.

Virtue (de) 德

Taoists seek virtue in their life. It is a passive power that never lays claim to achievements. It is an inner strength and confidence.

Non-action (wu wei) 无为

The Dao De Jing says, ‘The man of superior virtue never acts, and yet there is nothing he leaves undone.’ It does not imply there is no action, but that the actions are so in tune with the natural order of things that the author leaves no trace of himself.

ANCIENT PRACTICES OF ANCESTOR WORSHIP AND FOLK RELIGION

Confucius believed that the bonds we form with our loved ones in this life are still there when they pass on. Up until the early 20th century, a child would engage in a three-year mourning period when a parent died, consisting of wearing coarse clothing, eating a restricted diet of rice porridge twice a day, living in a mourning hut next to the house and other rites. The three-year period was symbolic of the first three years of life, when a child’s parents carried, fed and cared for him.

These mourning rites also resulted in ancestor worship. Family members had a responsibility to care for their deceased loved ones after their death. Ancestors are thought to be deities with power to affect the lives of those still living.

Ancestor worship still persists in rural areas and among Chinese living overseas. The practice includes having a place in the home where offerings are made to ancestors and where photographs of ancestors or tablets with their names carved on them are kept. Offerings of food are placed periodically and incense is burned. Family members pray in front of these ancestral shrines. In some cases, they also burn fake banknotes, paper cars and houses, even paper iPhones and iPads, to ensure their ancestors are comfortable in the afterlife.

Spirit mediums are sometimes called on to communicate with ghosts (the spirit form of a deceased relative and ancestor), who can help them if properly respected and rewarded with food and other offerings.

Rituals and spirit mediums are part of ancestor worship and folk religion.

CHINESE BUDDHISM AND OTHER BELIEFS

Buddhism is an Indian religion that was founded sometime around the 6th to 4th centuries BCE by a young wanderer, Siddhartha Gautama, who later become known as Buddha or the ‘Enlightened one’. It is China’s oldest foreign religion. It spread gradually to China during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) where it merged with the prevailing Taoist thought as well as folk religion. When the first Buddhist scriptures were translated into Chinese, Taoist terms based on folk religion were often used so that the Chinese could understand and interpret the principles.

By the 5th and 6th centuries, Buddhism had become a powerful intellectual force and was well established among the peasant class. The golden age of Buddhism however, was during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE), when it enjoyed state sponsorship (temples and monasteries were supported by the government), and widespread acceptance among the élite as well as peasant classes. Buddhist ideas and practices shaped Chinese culture in a wide variety of areas, including art, politics, literature, philosophy, medicine and material culture.

Buddhism, however, never fully displaced Confucianism and Taoism, but was accepted alongside these native religions. In fact, many in China felt perfectly comfortable adhering to the principles of all three religions at the same time. In order for this to happen, Buddhist philosophy and practices were altered so that they were compatible with existing beliefs in China.

BASIC PRINCIPLES

Samsara This is the belief that life is an endless cycle of birth, death and rebirth.

Reincarnation This is rebirth of the soul into a new body. That new body depends on how someone lives their life. If they live a bad, evil life, they may be reincarnated as a dog or a rat in their next life. If they live a good, virtuous life, they may come back as a more enlightened person.

Karma This refers to acts or deeds. Good conduct and deeds bring happiness and lead to similar good acts and further happiness. Bad conduct brings misery and evil and leads to more bad conduct. Good karma results in a better reincarnation.

Nirvana Once one has overcome these obstacles, they reach a state of enlightenment or nirvana. The endless cycle of rebirth is overcome and one is released from suffering and becomes a Buddha.

Although Buddhism was suppressed in mainland China, most recently during the 1960s and 1970s, it has slowly regained importance to many people. The government is also restoring monasteries and temples, although this is more for the sake of tourism than for any adoration of the religion.

Buddhist monks dressed in saffron robes chant inside the Grand Hall of the Jade Buddha Temple, founded in 1882 in the west of Shanghai.

THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

The Four noble Truths are at the core of Buddhist thought.

1. Life is suffering

To live means to suffer because human nature is not perfect. Suffering comes from pain, sickness, injury, old age and death.

2. The origin of suffering is attachment or desire

When we become attached to things and ideas, we suffer. The causes of suffering are desire, passion and seeking wealth, prestige, fame or popularity.

3. Suffering can be eliminated

Suffering can be eliminated by getting rid of desires or attachments. Our suffering will then go away because we will realize that all things and ideas are transient and thus unimportant.

4. There is a path to the end of suffering

The path to the end of suffering is a gradual one of self-improvement. This path has eight principles called the Eightfold Path. This path seeks a balance between excessive self-indulgence (hedonism) and strict sacrifice (asceticism). The goal is to get rid of ego and to extinguish illusions, passions and cravings. Following the Eightfold Path (below) leads to Enlightenment or nirvana.

Right views

Right intentions

Right speech

Right actions

Right livelihood

Right efforts

Right mindfulness

Right concentration (meditation)

Chinese Muslims leave the Id Kah Mosque in Xinjiang Province after prayers marking the end of Ramadan.

CHINESE MUSLIMS

Approximately 1–2 percent of the people living in the People’s Republic of China are Muslims, among them Chinese Muslims as well as those from many ethnic minority groups, such as the Uyghurs, Kazaks and other Central Asian groups. Although Chinese Muslims are ethnic Hans and speak Chinese, they are considered Hui or Muslim because of their religious beliefs and cultural practices.

Muslims arrived in China as early as 650 CE during the Tang Dynasty, just 18 years after Prophet Muhammad’s death. Their primary interest was trade. The first mosque was built in the southern city of Guangzhou. Muslims came to dominate the import–export business in China. They intermarried with Han Chinese, learned to speak and read Chinese, and by the Ming Dynasty could not be distinguished from Han Chinese even though they maintained their religious beliefs and customs.

There are more than 32,000 mosques in China, most of them in Xinjiang Province. The biggest and most important mosque in China is located in the city of Xi’an and is called the Great Mosque of Xi’an. It has a distinctive Chinese feel to it, with elements of Chinese and Buddhist architecture mixed with Muslim features.

GOD IS RED: ATHEISM AND THE CULT OF MAO

With the establishment of the Communist People’s Republic of China in 1949, religions were outlawed. Superstition, traditional beliefs and customs and religious practices were viewed as backward and not contributing to forward progress, not to mention their incompatibility with Communist ideology. As such, all religious practices, including Taoism, Confucianism, Buddhism, Christianity and ancestral worship, were suppressed. Mao Zedong established himself as the Great Helmsman and unquestioned leader and authority in China. His many sayings were compiled into a book, which became known as the ‘little red book’. These sayings were committed to memory by many and quoted with religious fervor. The little red books were carried around by nearly everyone and considered as sacred as scripture. Those speaking out against Mao or his sayings were punished. Mao was considered by many to have reached godlike status among the Chinese. This Cult of Mao subsided after his death in 1976 and has faded since then.

CHRISTIANITY IN CHINA

Nestorian Christianity first came to China in the 8th century during the Tang Dynasty but did not meet with much success. By the Mongol period in the 13th century, some Mongol tribes were primarily Nestorian Christian, an early branch of Christianity from Persia. Franciscan friars from Europe also began proselytizing in China during this period. Through the years, various Christian missionaries traveled to China preaching their faith, the most famous being Matteo Ricci who arrived in 1582 and introduced Western science, mathematics and astronomy. Other Christian missionaries continued to go to China in search of converts through the 17th and 18th centuries. Often these missionaries were met with strong resistance from the ruling emperors. Qing Dynasty emperors in the early 19th century outlawed Christianity and attempted to expel or kill all foreign and domestic Christians. Nevertheless, Christian proselytizing continued up into the 20th century.

Today, the Catholic and Protestant churches are officially recognized by the Chinese government and Christian chapels are located in large cities, some dating back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries. There is increasing interest in Christianity, with many informal ‘house churches’ throughout the countryside. Although not officially recognized by the government, they have become quite popular. Believers meet in private homes and traveling ministers often preach at these gatherings.

An old Christian church beside a canal in the city of Huangzhou.

FAMOUS HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL SITES IN CHINA

China’s long history and its vast and varied geography have given rise to numerous tourist attractions, including 48 UNESCO World Heritage sites that are both cultural and natural.

THE FORBIDDEN CITY

The 90 palaces and courtyards of the Forbidden City, situated in the very heart of Beijing, were home to 14 emperors of the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) dynasties. Covering an area of 178 acres (72 ha) and entered through Tiananmen, the Gate of Heavenly Peace, this largest ancient palatial structure in the world and the former ceremonial and political center of China is well worth a visit to see its traditional palace architecture and the many treasures housed in the Palace Museum.

THE GREAT WALL

The Great Wall of China stretches approximately 5,500 miles (8,850 km) across northern China from east to west. It begins at the sea in eastern China and winds up and down mountains and across deserts before it comes to an end in northwestern China. Construction began on the Great Wall during the Warring States Period (476–221 BCE) and was added to and rebuilt over the next 2,000 years. Much of what you see today was built during the Ming Dynasty and restored in the modern era. The wall was originally built by independent kingdoms to prevent invasion by nomadic tribes on the steppes of Asia. During the Qin Dynasty (221 BCE–206 CE), the various walls were connected to make a more complete structure to protect the country. It was built primarily by conscripted laborers using stone, brick, wood and tamped earth. The Ming Dynasty sections of the wall are 18–26 feet (6–8 m) tall and 15–30 feet (4–9 m) wide at the base, sloping to about 12 feet (4 m) wide at the top. Of the estimated 25,000 watchtowers built along the wall, some of which were large enough to house dozens of soldiers, many still remain. The Great Wall is a popular tourist attraction for both foreigners and Chinese. Many parts of the Wall are easily accessed from Beijing.

The Great Wall of China outside Beijing stretches for about 5,500 miles (8,850 km) from the sea in the east to the far deserts of northwestern China.

THE TERRACOTTA WARRIORS OF XI’AN

In 1974, on the outskirts of Xi’an, a farmer was digging a well and discovered a life-sized clay soldier. He had inadvertently discovered a huge tomb complex for the first emperor of the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE). The complex contained thousands of these life-sized warriors, many holding bronze weapons. The pit also contained life-sized chariots and terracotta horses. Most of the figures were broken into pieces but have since been painstakingly pieced back together. Although the figures appeared gray, there were remnants of vivid paint clinging to some of them. The actual tomb of the Qin emperor is just over a mile (2 km) away. These soldiers, lined up in formation in underground corridors, were built to protect the emperor’s tomb from invaders. A large structure has been built directly over the excavation site and is now one of the most important, interesting and popular museums in China.

YELLOW MOUNTAIN

HUANG SHAN

Huang Shan or Yellow Mountain is a mountain range, 6,115 feet (1,864 m) high, located in southern Anhui Province. The area is known for its stunning granite peaks, spectacular sunsets and sunrises, misty clouds, evocative pine trees, hot springs and high-quality green teas. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a popular tourist destination. Like Guilin in south-central China, Yellow Mountain has been the subject of countless landscape paintings and poems. A number of guesthouses and small restaurants are dotted among the peaks. Travelers can either take trams to the top of these or go the old-fashioned way, walking up some of the 60,000 stairs carved into the rock in the Yellow Mountain area.

SUN YAT-SEN MAUSOLEUM

THE SUN YAT-SEN MAUSOLEUM

The mausoleum of the father of modern China, Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925), is located on the outskirts of the city of Nanjing in Jiangsu Province, in an area called Purple Mountain. The mausoleum complex covers 20 acres (8 ha) and was completed in 1929. The complex consists of arched gateways, characters carved on stone tablets and an impressive series of stairways and platforms that lead to the actual tomb, which is a combination of Chinese and Western architecture. Inside the tomb building is a large marble statue of Sun Yat-sen dressed in traditional long robes. There are several other ceremonial buildings in the area, all located in a beautiful forested area to the east of Nanjing. The tomb of the first emperor of the Ming Dynasty is located nearby. This makes a pleasant excursion outside the hectic city.

BEIJING’S TEMPLE OF HEAVEN

The Temple of Heaven in Beijing is a complex of religious buildings used by the emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties for annual ceremonies and prayers to heaven to ensure a good harvest. It was constructed in the early 1400s, at the same time the Forbidden City was built. The central building in the complex, a circular three-tiered structure, is the Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests. It is built entirely of wood with no nails. The other important structure is a large circular altar called the Circular Mound Altar. It consists of a large three-tiered circular platform with a round stone in the center. The emperor would stand on this stone to offer prayers for good weather and a good harvest.

THE KARST MOUNTAINS OF GUILIN

The city of Guilin in south-central China lies on the banks of the Li River. It is one of the most popular tourist attractions in all of China and has been the subject of countless Chinese landscape paintings for thousands of years. People flock here to see the natural and strange beauty of the karst mountain formations. These steep, jagged limestone peaks loom over the city and the surrounding countryside. The area also has an abundance of caves and sinkholes. It is popular to take a boat down the Li River to view the karst hills and the peaceful countryside and small villages in the area. Most river cruises begin in Guilin and end in the backpackers’ haven of Yangshuo. Here you will find all kinds of small shops and Western cafés and bars.

Fisherman using cormorants to catch fish in the Li River.

SUZHOU, CHINA’S VENICE

Suzhou is a major city located in Jiangsu Province, between Taihu Lake and the Yangtze River, about 60 miles (100 km) west of Shanghai. This ancient city was originally founded in 514 BCE. It is often referred to as the ‘Venice of the East’ because 42 percent of the city is covered by water. The city is divided by China’s Grand Canal from north to south, an artificial canal built in the 6th century to link Hangzhou with Beijing. Many small canals criss-cross the city. But Suzhou is most widely known as a centerpiece of the Chinese Classical Garden. Originally, there were hundreds of gardens but now only 69 remain, some of them over a thousand years old. The gardens of Suzhou have been named a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The gardens contain a mixture of hills, ponds, bridges, terraces, corridors and pagodas. Marco Polo described Suzhou as one of the most beautiful cities in China. Suzhou is also known for its whitewashed houses that line the canals.

BEIJING’S SUMMER PALACE

Located 9 miles (15 km) northwest of central Beijing, the Summer Palace, another World Heritage Site, is a vast grouping of lakes, gardens and palaces that began as a royal garden for the emperor and his family during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912). Royalty often took refuge here during the hot summer months. The largest and best preserved royal park in China, it is divided into four areas: Court Area, Front Hill Area, Rear Hill Area and Lake Area. The main attraction is Kunming Lake and the Front Hill Area where beautiful pagodas and towers are built on the side of a hill overlooking the lake.

The white marble Yudai (Jade Belt) Bridge in Beijing's Summer Palace.

Traveling by canal in Suzhou, Jiangsu Province.

THE BUDDHIST GROTTOES OF DUNHUANG

The Mogao Caves or Grottoes, also known as the ‘Caves of the Thousand Buddhas’, are located in northern Gansu Province in western China, along the ancient Silk Road route. The caves form the largest, best preserved and longest used depository of Buddhist art in the world. They were dug and stocked with Buddhist art and scriptures from 366 CE until the 14th century. Of the caves, 492 have been preserved along with 2,000 painted murals and sculptures. In 1900, a Taoist priest discovered a walled-off cave that contained a treasure trove of manuscripts, including 1,110 bundles of scrolls and 15,000 paper books dating from the 4th to the 11th centuries. These documents were written in a number of languages, including Chinese, Tibetan, Uyghur, Sanskrit, Sogdian and the obscure Khotanese, all languages important along the ancient Silk Route that connected China with Central Asia.

The Big Wild Goose Pagoda in the Ci’en Buddhist Temple complex in Xi’an.

BIG WILD GOOSE PAGODA

The Big Wild Goose Pagoda, the most famous landmark in Xi’an City in Shaanxi Province, was built in 652 during the Tang Dynasty. It sits within the Ci’en Buddhist Temple complex, which consists of numerous buildings and courtyards. One of the largest Buddhist temples in the area, the Big Wild Goose Pagoda was originally built to house Buddhist relics taken from India by the early Chinese Buddhist pioneer Xuan Zang, who became the first abbot of the temple. His travels to India inspired one of China’s most famous novels, Journey to the West. The pagoda has seven stories (originally five) and stands 211 feet (64 m) high. Visitors can climb the narrow stairway to the top.

A pathway on sacred Mount Emei in western Sichuan Province.

MOUNT EMEI

Mount Emei is one of China’s four sacred Buddhist mountains and is regarded as a place of enlightenment. It has been an important Buddhist site for hundreds of years. It rises to 10,167 feet (3,099 m) in western Sichuan Province. There are footpaths up the mountain and numerous teahouses and guesthouses along the way. Many of the Buddhist monasteries also have basic lodging. There are also cable cars to the top. Over a hundred Buddhist temples and monasteries dot the mountain. It is very popular to be on the summit for the spectacular sunrise and to view the sea of misty clouds below. It is about a two-hour train ride from Chengdu. Though you can reach the summit in a day, you really need three days to fully explore the mountain. Popular sites to visit are the Golden Summit, Baoguo Temple, Wan-nian Monastery and Jiu Lao Cave.

THE YANGTZE RIVER AND THE THREE GORGES

The Yangtze is the world’s third longest river and the longest in China. The Three Gorges, along the middle reaches of the Yangtze, are one of China’s top scenic destinations. The gorges range from 330 to 900 feet (100 to 300 m) wide with towering walls on either side. The gorges have been part of Chinese history, literature and folklore for thousands of years. Cruise boats ply the waters between Chongqing in the west to Wuhan or Yichang downriver. Travelers can take luxury cruise ships or local ferry boats. Although there are scenic temples and small towns to visit along the way, the biggest attraction is the gorges themselves.