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CHAPTER 2

CHINESE CULTURE AND FOOD

China has a deep and long cultural tradition dating back to prehistoric times. China’s traditional arts reflect this long history with refined arts and practices. Traditional Chinese medicine draws on philosophical knowledge grounded in cultural practices, while Chinese cuisine reflects the variety of a large, complex and diverse nation.

TRADITIONAL CHINESE ARTS

What we call the traditional arts in China have been around for thousands of years. The brush arts—calligraphy, painting and poetry—were the artistic pursuits of the educated class through much of China’s history. The great Song Dynasty poet Su Shi (1037–1101) was also a renowned calligrapher and painter, and the great Tang Dynasty poet Wang Wei (699–759) was equally well known for his landscape paintings.

RUNNING STYLE CALLIGRAPHY

CALLIGRAPHY BRUSHES

CALLIGRAPHY SUPPLIES

CALLIGRAPHY SCROLL

POETRY

Whereas the West is known for Greek philosophy, Roman law, Renaissance art and Italian opera, poetry is the most striking cultural element of Chinese civilization. It was one of the earliest forms of written expression in China, with the Book of Songs dating back to the 7th century BCE. Poetry became the highest form of creative expression throughout Chinese civilization, and for most of China’s history poetry was an integral part of daily life for the educated class. It was promoted by the government and pursued as a vehicle for personal pleasure and communication. In the Tang Dynasty (618–907) alone, more poetry was composed than in the rest of the world combined up to the 18th century. One anthology, the Complete Tang Poems, which is considered incomplete, contains 48,900 poems by 2,200 poets. People in the Chinese-speaking world today continue to read and compose classical poems in the styles developed during the Tang and Song dynasties.

There are numerous anthologies of Chinese poetry translated into English but two that provide a good introduction to classical Chinese poetry are Sunflower Splendor: Three Thousand Years of Chinese Poetry by Wu-Chi Liu and Irving Yucheng Lo (1975) and Classical Chinese Poetry: An Anthology by David Hinton (2010).

The most famous Chinese poems are short, either four or eight lines long. Common themes include longing for a lover, nature and recalling the past. Many Chinese school children memorize this famous poem by the Tang Dynasty poet Li Bai.

Moonlight shines on my bed

Like frost on the ground

I look up and gaze at the moon

Then lower my head and think of home.

chuáng qián míng yuè guāng

yí shì dì shàng shuāng

jû tóu wàng míng yùe

dī tóu sī gù xiāng

CALLIGRAPHY

Calligraphy, the writing of Chinese characters with a brush and ink, is considered one of the highest forms of Chinese art. In ancient China, calligraphy was practiced by the educated élite, who comprised a small percentage of the population. Calligraphy may consist of a single character, common sayings, poetry, essays and other writings. It is still valued and practiced in China today. Bookstores usually have a department that sells calligraphy supplies, including brushes of various sizes, brush stands made of wood or ceramic, ink stones, ink sticks and liquid ink as well as various kinds and sizes of paper and silk scrolls. There are also dedicated calligraphy shops.

There are five basic styles of calligraphy:

Ancient Style This is the earliest calligraphic style, dating back to the Shang (1650–1045 BCE) and Zhou (1045–256 BCE) dynasties. It includes large and small seal scripts as well as the ancient script that was carved onto animal bones and inscribed onto bronze vessels in ancient times.

Li or Official Style This style was invented during the Qin Dynasty (221– 206 BCE) and was adopted for almost all government and official purposes. It became more standardized during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) when it was used for all kinds of stone monuments and official records.

Regular Style This style was developed during the later part of the Han Dynasty. By the time of the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE), it was firmly established as one of the standard styles. It is more regular in that there is little room for artistic flair. In fact, many Chinese print fonts are based on the regular style.

Running Style This style was also developed in the later Han Dynasty and was used alongside the Regular Style. It is more artistic than previous styles in that it resembles cursive handwriting, with freer, more vivid and flowing movements. It is the most common style for regular writing with a brush.

Grass Style This style was also developed simultaneously with the Regular and Running styles. It is the most highly artistic, a kind of carefree, highly stylistic cursive form. But for those untrained in calligraphy, it can be difficult to decipher the characters.

Learning calligraphy can be a daunting task as it requires a great deal of practice. Most universities in China offer a Chinese calligraphy class, especially those with foreign student populations. In these classes students learn about the basic supplies needed before practicing writing in the Regular Style. They may also learn the Li or Running styles. The Ancient and Grass styles are usually reserved for advanced students. Some universities in the United States with larger, more established Chinese programs as well as some community adult education programs also offer Chinese calligraphy courses.

After learning the basics of how to hold the brush and do basic stroke patterns, students can also practice calligraphy using self-instruction booklets sold at most Chinese bookstores, which provide a way for the student to trace the characters, either using tracing paper over the characters or following the arrowed outlines of characters. Booklets like these are very suitable for children.

Scrolls with Chinese calligraphy are not only a popular art form in China but are also popular souvenirs. Scrolled calligraphy is sold in many bookstores, souvenir shops and dedicated calligraphy shops. Souvenir shops catering to tourists usually sell cheap replicas of Chinese calligraphy done by master calligraphers. True original works of art can cost up to several thousand dollars.

CHINESE CERAMICS

When one thinks of Chinese ceramics, the iconic blue and white Ming vase usually comes to mind, but many kinds of Chinese ceramics were produced during different historical eras, as can be seen in museums in China. These range from early hand-built, low-fired pottery intended for everyday use to sophisticated fine porcelain wares made for the imperial court. Two separate production areas, in the north and south, each with different raw materials, collectively produced three-color leadglazed ceramics, celadon, blackwares (used for teapots and cups), underglaze blue and white wares, delicate white porcelain, and much more.

Porcelain was being made in China as early as the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), but it was during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) that most innovation occurred. It was also during the Ming that China began exporting ceramics, produced even then on an industrial scale, to other parts of the world, giving rise to the term ‘china’ to refer to dinnerware.

When shopping for ceramics, keep in mind that those sold in antiques markets around China are not genuine. They are replicas. That doesn’t mean you can’t find some nice pieces, just don’t believe that you are getting a genuine antique worth thousands of dollars even if that is what they are charging. Once at an antiques market in Nanjing, I was approached by two peasants who said they had some original ceramics unearthed in the countryside. I was skeptical but decided to take a look. I selected a small covered dish that had an inscription on the bottom indicating it was made during the Qianlong Emperor’s reign of the Qing Dynasty, which would make it more than a 200 years old. It was more expensive than what was selling in the market but was still fairly cheap. Of course it was not authentic but it was a pretty good replica. This is a common strategy near antiques markets. In reality, it is illegal to take anything out of China that is more than 100 years old, and anything that is truly antique will have a special seal and documentation to prove its authenticity.

A gently sloping tunnel-like brick and earth ‘dragon’ kiln, developed in China 3,000 years ago for firing pottery and ceramic ware.

An antique blue and white Chinese vase.

Traditional Chinese decorative porcelain vases and jars.

If you just want some Chinese calligraphy to display on your wall at home, a bookstore is a good place to shop. It will usually carry a wide range of styles and texts, sometimes mixed with a landscape. Remember that calligraphy is an art form and what is written is less important than the style and aesthetic of the work. Once you have decided which style of calligraphy you want, inspect the scroll. Look for a heavy, good quality silk and characters that look original, not photocopied. Black ink on white silk is typically of higher quality than colored paintings. The other option is to have a calligrapher do a scroll for you with your choice of wording, such as a favorite poem or an excerpt from the Confucian Analects of the Tao Te Ching.

Although I personally own calligraphy scrolls in many different styles, I tend to favor the Running Style because the characters are recognizable yet have a beautiful flowing character to them, much like well-written cursive. My second favorite style is the Li Style. Sometimes the style of the calligraphy for me is dictated by the text. For example, I have a line from the Confucian Analects which I had written in the Li Style, which would have been roughly contemporary to Confucius’s time.

LI OR OFFICIAL STYLE CALLIGRAPHY

LANDSCAPE PAINTING

Among a number of different types of Chinese painting themes and styles, landscape painting remains one of the most highly regarded and is certainly the most commonly seen in the West. Landscape painting evolved into an independent genre of Chinese painting in the last years of the 9th century as the Tang Dynasty disintegrated into chaos and cultivated Chinese intellectuals (painters and poets alike) attempted to escape society and withdraw into the natural world to commune with nature through their paintings and poems. The genre reached its epoch in the Northern Song Period (907–1127 CE), which became known as the ‘Great Age of Chinese Landscape’. As landscape painting evolved during the Song, it became more than just a description of nature and began to be an expression of the inner landscape of the artist’s heart and mind, how the artist perceived the world around him, commonly referred to as the ‘mind landscape’.

While Chinese landscape painting has been transformed over the centuries, images of nature have remained a potent source of inspiration. Early landscapes often depicted the Five Sacred Mountains and Four Great Rivers, places of imperial and religious significance, and they were often judged in terms of how well the subject matter served the gods, buddhas, sages and emperors. Depictions of wild nature, with waterfalls, towering peaks, rivers and trees and the occasional building or person were common, as well as more restrained depictions of well-ordered imperial gardens. Figures in landscape paintings were, and still are, often very small, and usually in one corner of the painting. This reflects Chinese attitudes about man’s relationship with nature, that of being part of nature but being overshadowed by the permanence of it. It was also common to annotate a landscape painting with a poem written in one of the standard calligraphy styles, often the Running Style.

Landscape paintings, as with other types of painting, were often done with a single brush and black ink. Although natural color pigments were used, black was the predominant choice among Chinese artists, rendered boldly or subtly.

Chinese landscape paintings can be viewed in museums in China, such as the Palace Museum in the Forbidden City, the National Museum in Beijing and the Shanghai Museum. The National Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan, has an excellent rotating collection of Chinese landscape paintings. In the US, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston and the Art Institute in Chicago all have large collections of Chinese art, as does the British Museum in London.

A LONG TRADITION OF CHINESE SILK

Silk, one of the oldest fibers known to man, is produced from silkworm cocoons, the best of which come from the larvae of the mulberry silkworm. A single silkworm can produce over 3,000 feet (900 m) of silk thread in its short 28-day lifespan. Silk was first produced in China as early as 3500 BCE. Archeologists have found intricately dyed and woven silk textiles dating back to the Zhou Dynasty (1045–256 BCE).

Although the lengthy, labor-intensive process of producing silk was kept a strictly guarded secret in China for 3,000 years, where silk was regarded as a luxury item and its use was strictly controlled, silk gradually spread, both geographically and socially, as Chinese traders ventured forth, taking with them their products and their culture. In the 2nd century, demand for the exotic fabric created the lucrative trade route now known as the Silk Road, which stretched 4,000 miles (6,400 km) from eastern China to India, Europe, the Middle East and northern Africa.

Silk has played a significant role in almost every aspect of Chinese society, politics, economics and culture, but nowhere more obviously than in clothing. Because silk is a wonderfully light, soft, lustrous and yet strong material, which also has a sensuous sheen but is not slippery (unlike many synthetic fibers), it has always been used primarily for clothing. It is cool in hot weather and warm in cool weather. Although it was initially reserved exclusively for the use of the emperor and his close relatives and highest dignitaries for making ankle-length robes, and as gifts for others, silk is now available to people all around the world, especially for fashioning into clothing for special occasions.

Silk was also used as a medium for painting and calligraphy and for weaving into fine rugs.

China remains the largest producer of silk in the world, producing more than two-thirds of all output. The raising of silkworms is still very much a cottage industry in rural households but silk production is largely automated, carried out in factories on high-end machinery.

Silk is still commonly worn in China for formal and celebratory occasions. Fabric shops have a wide selection of silk available in just about every type to suit all pockets—chiffon, crepe, jacquard, raw silk, shantung—and any color to suit all tastes, for tailoring into formal gowns, dresses, blouses, jackets, trousers and shirts. As in the US, silk is sold by the meter.

The slim-fitting traditional Chinese dress called the qipao or cheongsam, as the Cantonese call it, is a popular item for purchase while in China. These can be bought off the rack in a department store or can be custom-made by a tailor. Many fabric stores have in-house tailors who can make clothing to measure. The quality of custom-made clothing in China varies widely. Typically, higher quality products sell for more.

Another common item that tourists look for are silk robes. These usually can be found in shops catering to tourists as they are not that popular among the Chinese. One can also buy silk handicrafts such as embroidered silk wall hangings, children’s clothing and accessories like neckties.

Bolts of colorful Chinese silk for sale in a fabric shop.

The iconic slim-fitting traditional qipao or cheongsam in ‘lucky’ red Chinese silk.

Silk robes and neckties are popular items among visitors to China.

TRADITIONAL CHINESE MEDICINE (TCM)

The traditional Chinese approach to treating illness is much more holistic than in the West. A traditional Chinese doctor will not only look at the symptoms of an illness but seek to understand the cause and how it relates to other functions of the body. The emphasis is on balance in the body, manifested through the principles of yin and yang. Too much of one thing, such as heat, causes an imbalance leading to a variety of illnesses. The five elements (air, earth, fire, metal and wood) are also integral to traditional Chinese medicine as they are part of the life force (qi) that flows through the body. The qi of the elements waxes and wanes in the body in daily and seasonal cycles.

Herbal medicine for sale at a Chinese medical hall.

If you have a headache, the problem may not be in your head. Traditional Chinese medicine tries to solve the underlying problem instead of treating your headache. After taking traditional medicine, you may not feel the effect immediately and you may still have a headache, but over a certain time the underlying problem will be treated and the headache will go away. While Western medicine may make your headache go away quickly, it is a temporary fix.

In general, for acute diseases the Chinese prefer Western medicine, but for chronic diseases they usually think traditional Chinese medical methods are more effective.

CUPPING THERAPY

Cupping therapy is another way to stimulate points along the acupuncture meridians. It is believed that cupping draws out toxins and waste from the body. It also can stimulate the body’s immune system, promote the flow of blood and qi and increase metabolism. It is done by suctioning small glass, metal or wood jars on the affected area. The suction is created by placing a small flame in a jar, then quickly placing it on the body. This stimulates the area by causing coagulation of the blood. Once all the jars are in place, you feel a strong pulling sensation as the skin is drawn about an inch inside the cups, but this eases within a few minutes. Cupping therapy is commonly used for backaches, soft tissue injuries, sprains, acne, colds and asthma. It leaves large, round red marks on your body that gradually disappear over 4–5 days. Sometimes cupping therapy is done publicly in parks or at night markets.

I discovered cupping therapy several years ago when my neck and shoulders were very tight after a long flight to China. After the first time, I was hooked. Up until then, I had only had traditional Chinese massages. After the therapist began massaging me, he suggested cupping therapy as another way to loosen my neck muscles. He placed about 18 glass cups on my back. At first the pulling sensation was fairly intense, not painful, but almost. After about 5–10 minutes, it reduced to a long pulling sensation, then I began to relax. After about 30 minutes, he returned and began taking the cups off my back. Once they were all off, I felt really loose and relaxed, much more so than with massage alone. Every time I go to China now, I get cupping therapy to loosen me up and help me relax. My wife and kids are always amused to see the big red marks all over my back when I return.

A man receiving cupping treatment, an ancient form of Chinese alternative medicine for drawing out toxins and waste from the body.

TRADITIONAL CHINESE MASSAGE

Traditionally, massage therapists in Chinese were blind but most clinics today employ both blind and sighted therapists. A Chinese massage is usually done with the client fully clothed. The therapist will put a sheet or light towel over your clothes so that their hands are not in direct contact with your body. Massage is a common way to deal with stress or problems with your back, neck or other areas of your body.

In many hair salons, a scalp, neck and shoulder massage is part of the cost of a haircut, and can be quite relaxing. In other salons, you can get a hair wash and massage without having a cut.

I’m a big fan of traditional Chinese massage. I began going to a local traditional massage therapy clinic for neck and shoulder tension when I was living in Nanjing. It was a great way to relax and get loosened up. Not only is it convenient and therapeutic, it is also very cheap. You can typically get a full body massage, which includes your head, neck, shoulders, back, legs, arms and upper chest for less than US $15. There is nothing sleazy or erotic about a traditional Chinese massage. Legitimate clinics are clearly marked outside and typically have a ‘menu’ of the services available.

Most traditional Chinese massage clinics also provide the option of a foot massage. Foot massages can also be found on the street near night markets. There are various kinds of foot massage, which are particularly relaxing if you have been on your feet a lot. Most begin by soaking your feet in an herbal solution to soften and relax them. After about 15–20 minutes, you lie back in a reclining padded chair for the massage. The service often includes a pedicure to remove rough, callused skin. This is typically done with scary looking knives, but there is nothing dangerous about it.

The best way to find a traditional massage clinic is to ask around. Some larger hotels may also have clinics or can refer you to one.

QIGONG AND TAICHI

Qigong is the blending of breathing techniques, postures or gentle movements and meditation to cleanse, strengthen and circulate the qi or life energy in your body, which circulates through channels called meridians. Qigong attempts to keep this system strong and healthy. It is not only practiced for health but also as a form of martial arts and for spiritual practice to bring the practitioner more in harmony with nature. Qigong has been an integral part of Chinese life throughout history and is mentioned in texts dating back 2,000 years. It is usually associated with Taoist principles and combines principles of Chinese medicine, martial arts and meditation. Practitioners of qigong claim great health benefits, including the ability to prevent and cure disease.

Taichi taichi (taiqi) is a form of martial arts that emphasizes slow, fluid movements. It is usually considered a form of exercise and can be seen all over China when groups gather in parks, college campuses and open spaces in the morning to practice the various taichi forms. Practitioners wear loose, flowing, traditional clothing. Most universities with foreign student programs offer taichi classes but you can also show up at just about any park or public space early in the morning and find people doing taichi. It may be possible to join one of these groups and learn by observation and mimicry. Many Chinese will be happy to coach you, although most Chinese who practice taichi outdoors tend to be older. You can also buy DVDs of taichi lessons at most bookstores, or simply go online and find video instruction of taichi. Taichi is not terribly difficult to learn but it is difficult to master. I have taken taichi courses on at least three different occasions but it is easy to forget the moves if you don’t practice regularly. Most beginner-level courses teach 24 basic forms. Once you have mastered these, you can move on to more complicated forms. Taichi is also a great way to learn to relax, breathe and have more control over your body.

Young women practice taichi in a park.

Participants at a taichi wushu festival, Dalian, 2009.

CHINESE HERBAL MEDICINE

Chinese herbs are generally classified into food and medicinal herbs. Food herbs are eaten with food or added to dishes to strengthen, nourish and maintain health. For example, Chinese wolfberries or goji berries are often steeped in tea or added to soups to give general nourishment or when nursing oneself back to health after an illness.

When the Chinese get sick, they often take traditional Chinese medicine as prescribed by a traditional Chinese doctor. Medicinal herbs are much the same as food herbs but are taken differently, usually in greater quantities and often in the form of a tea. There are more than a thousand common herbs used for colds, flu, bronchitis and a variety of other ailments.

Most formulas consists of 10–15 different herbs selected to work together to treat a particular illness. In general, one bag of the prescribed herbs is boiled twice a day and drunk as a tea, once in the morning and again at night after the water has been topped up. The next day, a new bag of herbs is used. Doctors will tell you when to drink the herbs, either before or after meals, what you can and cannot eat when taking them, and how to prepare them. They may explain a little about the formula, such as which herbs are used for what purposes, but sometimes these formulas are a secret and the doctor will not tell you exactly what is in them.

The Chinese herbs below are very commonly used in China and abroad:

Ban Lan Gen or Isatis Root This is probably the most common Chinese medicinal herb in China and has been used for 2,000 years. It is sometimes translated as indigo woad root, Chinese indigo or isatis root. It is the root of the isatis plant and is also a source of indigo dye. It is commonly used for treating common colds, sore throats and other nose and sinus infections. It is said to fight viruses and bacterial infections and reduce fever and swelling. It was used by many Chinese during the SARS epidemic that swept the country in 2002–3.

Huang Qi or Astragalus Root This common Chinese medicinal herb is also a root frequently used to treat colds, flu and other respiratory infections. It is also effective in treating chronic hepatitis and is said to stimulate the spleen, liver, lungs, circulatory and urinary systems, and to treat arthritis, asthma, low blood pressure and low blood sugar. It is usually taken in combination with other herbs depending on the patient’s condition.

Gan Cao or Licorice Root This sweet root is often used in conjunction with other herbs to offset the bitterness found in many herbal recipes. It is often used for digestive problems as it promotes the secretion of insulin, protects the liver from toxins and is anti-ulcer. It is also used to reduce inflammation and allergic reactions and poisoning. It is used to treat some kinds of cancer and HIV and to fight viruses and bacteria.