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2 History of Japanese Lacquer

THE HISTORY OF JAPANESE LACQUER CONSISTS OF THE VARIOUS political, religious, and economic stimuli throughout the centuries which founded and fostered this branch of Japanese art. This chapter concerns itself basically with the historical influences on three major phases of lacquer art: 1) the overall development of lacquering and lacquer schools, 2) the origin and development of the major lacquer techniques, and 3) the development of lacquer design and subject matter.

Ancient Period (to A.D. 552)

The basic art of lacquering originated in China. It was subsequently introduced into Japan, where it flourished and gradually developed its own characteristics. Unfortunately we have only scant knowledge concerning the details of lacquer techniques during the Ancient period. Relics of lacquered bowls, combs, and amulets dating from the Jomon period and the Ancient Burial Mound period have been recovered. Red and black lacquer was already in use, although lacquer was probably used mainly at this time as a preservative for wood and leather articles rather than for ornamental purposes. Mention is made in the old records of a clan of lacquer workers called nuribe or urushibe as well as the establishment of an Imperial Lacquer Department in the period of Emperor Koan (392-291 b.c.). Decorative figures and ornamentation were already being done at this time. A book written in A.D. 380 mentions red and gold lacquer and a work appearing eight years later mentions gold lacquer as well as powdered gold lacquer, or nashiji.

Asuka (Suiko) Period (552-645)

With the introduction of Buddhism into Japan about 552, lacquer art received a substantial impetus. Black, red, yellow, and green lacquers were used, and the ornamental designs revealed the influence of the Chinese Six Dynasties and Han dynasty periods. Lacquer art was employed mainly for the decoration of important buildings, Buddhist images, and temples and was used on priests' robes. Also Japanese envoys to China wore lacquered leather armor. In 607 Prince Shotoku sent a mission to China to import Chinese culture, including all of the handicrafts. Knowledge of these handicrafts was to be developed in the following Nara period as applied to Buddhist art.

Nara Period (645-794)

Emperor Kotoku, whose reign began in 645, took an interest in lacquer art and established a special department employing the best artisans. Inferior lacquer was officially banned. There is a record of an order from Emperor Temmu (673-86) for red lacquer cabinets. Mention is made of the appointment of twenty government lacquerers under the reign of Emperor Mommu (697-707) who were ordered to study lacquer works and to sign their names to their articles. In 701 a legal code was set forth which included the establishment of an office of the Guild of Lacquer Workers (Nuribe no Tsukasa), which became part of the Ministry of the Imperial Household. It also ordered every landowner to plant lacquer trees in accordance with the area of his land and accepted lacquer in lieu of taxes. At this time princes and chief government officials were given crests to be painted in lacquer on a wooden tablet indicating their rank and office.

With the free exchange between Chinese and Japanese artisans in this period, many new lacquer techniques were adopted, showing the influence of the T'ang dynasty. Among these techniques were mother-of-pearl (raden), oil color (yushoku), sheet design (hyomon), gold-and-silver picture (kingin-e), powdered gold (makkinru), and the beginnings of makie techniques, including chiri-makie. These methods were used separately or in combination and were applied to wood imported from China. During the Nara period dry lacquer (kanshitsu) and lacquered-hide techniques were copied from the Chinese. In the former the wooden base was covered with layers of lacquered hemp cloth and, when dried, the wooden frame was removed. These methods were used not only for small objects, such as boxes, but also for large Buddhist figures. While these techniques were subsequently abandoned, the use of cloth and hide as a basis for lacquer is seen in early inro. Here the bodies were made of ox leather or even of thin dog or cat skin further stiffened with paper or cloth. Occasionally the rims alone were made of leather, the bodies being of thin wood.

The greatest demand for lacquer was for use in the temples, on the images and even on the beams and walls. However, lacquer was also beginning to be used on furniture, boxes (including sutra boxes), musical instruments, and sword scabbards. The motifs were influenced by the Chinese and were essentially of symmetrical formal scroll and arabesque designs interspersed with conventionalized flowers, leaves, and birds. The objects were heavily decorated, with minimal free background space. By the time of Emperor Shomu (724—48) lacquer had reached a high level of perfection. In 756 among the presents given to the Todai-ji temple by the empress Koken were some musical instruments, a go board, and mirrors, all gold-lacquered and encrusted with mother-of-pearl.

Heian Period (794-1185)

Very little is known about early Heian lacquer ware since few specimens remain from this period. In general, the later Heian period is noted for the patronage of the arts by the new Buddhist sects and by the emperor and the nobility. With the temporary loss of contact with China in 894, Japanese artists started to develop their own techniques and designs and to decorate utilitarian articles in addition to religious ones. In the early 9th century the Lacquer Department was incorporated into the future Public Works Department. In the 10th century lacquer ware was apparently no longer restricted to the official governmental lacquerers, since lacquer articles and lacquer juices from some of the provinces (Mino, Kozuke, and Echizen) were received by the government in lieu of taxes. In the late Heian period (Fujiwara, 898-1185) the nobility indulged in luxurious living, causing an increased demand for such lacquered articles as screens, folding screens, and other furniture to adorn their homes. Temples continued to be lavishly decorated and even had their beams and ceilings decorated with makie lacquer. In 905 Emperor Daigo issued strict regulations for the official supervision of the methods of making lacquer. It was also ordered that official lacquer artists would not be permitted to change their profession and were to train students to succeed them. In 947 a law was passed requiring all chief court officers to carry a sword with the sheath encrusted with mother-of-pearl, and in 987 all court ladies decorated the margins of their robes with mother-of-pearl, marking the beginning of such decorations on costumes. The emperor Kazan (reigned 984-86) was an amateur lacquerer and encouraged the fine arts. The priest-artist Chonen sent his disciple Ka-in to the emperor of China in 988 to present gifts of his lacquer work. Similarly in 1073 lacquered objects were sent to the royal house in Korea.

In 1087 the temple Chuson-ji was built in Mutsu Province and was decorated with nashiji and encrustations of mother-of-pearl. During the civil strife between the Taira and the Minamoto in the 11th century the art of lacquering fell into complete decadence, the priests remaining as the chief lacquer artists working around Kyoto. They introduced the technique of ashide-e, or calligraphy, dispersed within the pictorial design (Fig. 41). In 1129, on the 50th birthday of the emperor Horikawa, two famous lacquer artists Norisue and Kiyohara no Sadayasu were honored by being invited to the imperial banquet. In 1142 the entire furniture of the palace of the emperor Konoe was done in nashiji with rich encrustations of gold, mother-of-pearl, and stones of five colors. In 1169 the kuruma, or carriages of nobles, were decorated with hyomon lacquer. In general, lacquer was now used for many types of smaller and larger utilitarian objects, such as ink-stone boxes, fan boxes, cosmetic kits, comb boxes, desks, sword sheaths, clothes boxes, musical instruments, saddles, lanterns, food and drinking vessels, religious scroll boxes, etc. Many of these objects were exported to China and Korea, but in general the exportation of lacquer ware was prohibited up until the Meiji Restoration (1868), when Japan emerged from isolation to enter the modern world.

Technically makie was becoming increasingly finer as was sheet design and mother-of-pearl, while the older Chinese method of oil color was discarded. Other techniques now used were togidashi makie, makkinru, hiramakie, and heijin makie ("even dust"). The introduction of aokin-fun (gold-silver powder) and maki-bokashi (graduated sprinkling) improved the shading techniques. The ikakeji method (heavier dusting than heijin) developed, and the Somada style was mentioned during this time in the Genji Monogatari. Colored glass inlay was even done, although rarely. Boxes were edged (okiguchi) with lead, pewter, and silver, as ordered by Emperor Kazan in 986. Nashiji was used as early as A.D. 905.

Artistically lacquer design followed the general art trends of the time. They expressed the delicate, simple, graceful artistic taste of the nobility along with the beginnings of a more Japanese type of design copied from the newly established Yamato-e school of painting. Nature was beginning to be portrayed more realistically and pictorially, and the overall design was balanced simply and more artistically over the surface of the object. This contrasted with the previously portrayed highly conventionalized patterns of scrollwork and vegetation, densely and evenly distributed over the surface purely in the form of decorative patterns and arabesques. Nature, however, was still represented symbolically—a characteristic that permeates Far Eastern art through tradition, mythology, folklore, religion, and teachings of the laws of Oriental painting. Similarly, the portrayal of human and animal figures became Japanized and changed from that which produced the stylized, calm, expressionless, stoic Chinese faces and figures to that which depicted softer figures expressing rhythm and movement and displaying more individual facial expressions. Such trends were foretold especially in the early Japanese Buddhist sculpture, which was often lacquered to give the figure an added softness and a quiet grace.

Kamakura Period (1185-1392)

Japanese art, which had formerly been patronized only by Buddhist sects and the nobility at Kyoto, now found new patrons in the shogunate established at Kamakura and in the rising warrior class. Lacquer products of the era of Emperor Gotoba, who reigned from 1183 to 1198, were preserved in the temple of Hachiman in Kamakura. Such articles are decorated with birds or chrysanthemums encrusted with mother-of-pearl. It is noted in old records that Minamoto Yoritomo's (1147-99) wife Masako had great admiration for lacquered objects. The Kamakura school of lacquer came into existence during this time. The re-establishment of relations with Sung China presaged the influence of Zen Buddhism on Japanese art, which was felt mainly in the following Muromachi period. In 1315 the temple known as the Hideyoshi-ji was decorated with lacquer by famous lacquerers, including such artists as Kiyomitsu, Morichika, Moriuji, Yoshinaga, Tomoshige, Tomonage, Kunitomo, and Morihiro. During the 14th and 15th centuries, besides the Kamakura lacquerers, Kyoto again started to produce lacquer work. Technically, silver powder was not used as in the Heian period, giving works more strength at the expense of finesse. Hiramakie (flat design) and takamakie (raised design) developed along with new powders: hirame-fun (flake gold), nashiji-fun (fine aventurine gold), and kirigane (cut gold). Makie powders showed a greater range from coarse to very fine, and mother-of-pearl was often used alone and more intricately, especially as seen on saddles. Two special types of lacquer techniques developed during this era. The first was Kamakura-bori originated by the sculptor Koben, and was copied from Chinese carved lacquer. The second was the Negoro-nuri technique (Sho-o era, 1288-92) developed by the priests in the monastery of Negoro in Kii to produce red-and-black-lacquered eating and drinking vessels. In 1585 their temple was destroyed by Hideyoshi, and the few survivors fled to Kuroe in the province of Kii, continuing their production of lacquer ware for a short time.

The various lacquer techniques were often used to illustrate popular poems (waka) by incorporating into the design various Chinese characters of the poem. This poem (or song) picture technique was called utae and was probably Japanese in origin, although it was also practiced by the Chinese artisans.

Japanese art, including that of lacquer ware, continuing under the influence of the Yamato-e school, tended to veer more toward secular subjects, and nature was portrayed more realistically. Through the influence of the military spirit, works were stronger in appearance, sharper, more detailed, and form and lines were stronger and more angular. The omission of shadings of silver powder during this period and the use of various gold powderings and flakes in both subject matter and background, along with a profuseness of subject matter, resulted in less delicate and more gaudy pictorial designs.

Muromachi (Ashikaga) Period (1392-1573)

Japanese art during the Muromachi period was influenced essentially by Zen Buddhism, the renewal of trade with China, and the continued patronage of the arts under the shoguns Yoshimitsu and Yoshimasa. The overthrow of the Kamakura bakufu involved the destruction of the town of Kamakura, the shogunate being returned to Kyoto. In the 14th century two retainers of the Ashikaga family built castles at Sakai in the province of Izumi, thereby attracting lacquer artists to this area and inspiring new developments in the lacquer art. Yoshimitsu re-established trade with China through the Chinese port of Nimpo, and the local provinces also traded with China. Japanese Zen priests went to China to study, bringing back Chinese Zen culture. Many Chinese art objects were thus imported to Japan, including Sung and Yuan paintings and the new techniques of Ming lacquer ware, all of which were highly prized by the Japanese. Yoshimitsu (1358-1408) built the famous Kinkaku (Gold Pavilion) in Kyoto and retired there to indulge in Zen art and Chinese painting. Similarly Yoshimasa (1435-90) retired after two years as shogun to devote himself to religion (Zen) and art. He built the Ginkaku (Silver Pavilion) at Higashiyama in Kyoto. He took an interest in painting, music, calligraphy, drama, and the tea and incense ceremonies as well as the lacquer and metal arts. He employed Shuko and Jo-o to design new lacquered tea utensils, such as the natsume (tea jar). These were used in the summer in contrast to the pottery jars employed during the winter. He also employed the lac-querer Koami Docho (Michinaga), who often used for his designs the works of famous painters, such as Noami, Soami, and Tosa Mitsunobu. Also serving Yoshimasa was the lacquerer Igarashi Shinsai, whose style was later adopted by the Kajikawa family. The descendants of Shinsai and Michinaga were the outstanding lacquerers of the late Muromachi period. In general Japanese artists, including lacquer artists, began to be known by name during the Ashikaga period along with the beginning of the development of lacquer art schools and families. The lacquer works of this period were appropriately called Higashiyama pieces after the location of the Silver Pavilion. Japanese lacquer was being exported to China, where it was so highly appreciated that between 1426 and 1457 Chinese workmen came to Japan specifically to learn the art of makie, but they Were never able to master the Japanese techniques or artistry in this particular medium.

Meanwhile the importation of Chinese lacquer ware resulted in the adoption and development of new techniques which the Japanese lacquer artists characteristically perfected and incorporated into their armamentarium. An example is the Chinese carved lacquer (choshitsu), also known as Pekin or cinnabar lacquer, which was adopted by the Japanese (see tsuishu, tsuio, tsuikoku, and hashika-bori) by a lacquerer called Monnyu who lived in Kyoto during the reign of Emperor Gotsuchimikado (1464-1500). He also introduced the guri lacquer technique of carving into layers of different colors. During the Muromachi period relief makie further developed and was combined with burnished makie, such as shishiai togidashi. Silver and vermilion lacquer were also used. The old mother-of-pearl technique tended to give way to the new Ming-style thin shell. During this period, however, mother-of-pearl technique was replaced mainly by gold and silver sheet-design lacquer including kana-gai technique. Kama-kura-bori, which was employed in Kamakura, was popular as well as chinkin-bori, both of which were of Chinese influence. The Chinese chinkin-bori is known as lance-gold (tsang-chin) and had been popular since the Sung period (960-1279). In general the gold grounds were still rough, being polished by stone, and the grains of gold still projected beyond the lacquered surfaces. This point is important in determining the age of the lacquer. The technique of Shunkei-nuri, or transparent lacquer, was invented by the lacquerer Shunkei of Sakai in the province of Izumi at the end of the 14th century. Part of the stimulus to lacquer-ware production came from the tea-ceremony lacquered articles as well as those for the incense ceremony (Fig. 42). Lacquered cosmetic kits and especially ink-stone (writing) boxes were popular during this period.

Pictorially the designs of this period were not only affected by freer shapes and the beginnings of Japanese lacquer asymmetry and new techniques but also by the influence of the strong brush strokes of the Chinese Sung and Yuan paintings in the portrayal of rocks, tree trunks, and flowing water. This Chinese influence was incorporated into the Yamato-e style, which continued to develop. Furthermore, the simplicity of Zen art also affected lacquer designs, which became simpler and more artistic than in the preceding period. The designs of the lacquer ware of this period were also adopted from the Kano school as well as from the graceful Tosa school of painting. Previous to the Muromachi period, designs were principally either of birds or flowers, but now landscape designs, temples, and human figures were introduced.

Momoyama Period (1573-1615)

The Momoyama art period was so named because during this period Hide-yoshi built Fushimi Castle in Momoyama in the southern part of Kyoto. The culture of the Momoyama period was influenced essentially by the spirited patronization of the arts by the military rulers (Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, and Ieyasu) and the local daimyo, along with cultural contacts with China, Korea, the South Seas, and the West. The civil wars between 1570 and 1592 temporarily dispersed the lacquer artists and burned down their workshops, and once again lacquer art fell into temporary decadence. With the reunification of the country through subjugation of the powerful daimyo and Buddhist sects, art and culture continued to prosper. Trade with Portugal, Spain, Holland, and such Southeast Asian areas as the Philippines and Java flourished and to a certain degree furnished new art motifs and lacquer techniques. Relations with China were maintained, and, as a result of Hideyoshi's invasion of Korea in the last decade of the 16th century, new techniques of pottery and mother-of-pearl work were imported from that country.

Hideyoshi himself was a great patron of the arts and the tea and incense ceremonies. He introduced the custom of rewarding patriotic deeds with gifts of lacquer which were highly valued. This custom continued with several other shoguns. With the suppression of Buddhism, art became more and more secular. The end of feudal warfare brought about increased prosperity through foreign trade as well as increased trade and communication among the provinces. The local daimyo lived in luxury and patronized the fine arts, including the tea and incense ceremonies. They surrounded themselves with fine artists and maintained large castles which were resplendent with fine paintings, screens, lacquer, and metalwork. The castle towns subsequently became thriving commercial areas with the beginning of the new merchant class, which similarly began to patronize the arts, especially in the following Edo period. Lacquer ware, however, was still done mainly in Kyoto, rather than in the provinces, as would happen in the following Edo period.

Lacquer art and artists were patronized by the shogunate, especially Hideyoshi. There developed a gradually increased range of utilitarian articles, including personal articles along with household furniture and utensils, which were appropriate for lacquer decoration. Among such articles were meal trays with legs, eating and drinking bowls, cups and jars, tables, chairs, lanterns, cabinets, chests, shelves, etc. Hideyoshi employed the lacquerers Seiami and Hidetsugu II for making lacquered tea boxes. He also awarded a diploma of merit to the lacquerer Nagakiyo and commissioned his son Choan to supply lacquer articles for the enthronement ceremony of the emperor. Both of these men were members of the famous Koami lacquer family. Examples of fine lacquer work of this era include that done for the Tsukubusuma Shrine, the Sambo-in temple and the Kodai-ji temple in Kyoto, which was the mausoleum built by Hideyoshi's widow. The makie work of this period is also known as Kodai-ji makie. This period saw the beginnings and development of the inro, the zushi (miniature portable shrine), and the natsume tea jar, all of which added great stimulus to miniature lacquer art.

Technically flat makie was mainly employed. Nashiji was used not only for background but also in the pictorial design, known as picture aventurine (e-nashiji). Untouched sprinkle (maki-hanashi) was also in favor giving a more sparkling effect, as well as relief makie sprinkled with gold dust on the raised design (maki-abise). Kana-gai and hari-bori (needle carving) continued to be used, and the older Chinese lead-oxide-oil technique (mitsuda-e) was repopularized from the influence of Chinese lacquer and oil paintings. New methods were also being employed. These included kimetsuke makie, or relief makie, the design being ornamented with flakes of gold or silver, a development of the older byomon technique. Gyobu nashiji (named after Gyobu Taro) became popular. Lacquer wares from Siam (kimma-de) and the South Sea Islands (koma-de) were imported and adopted by the Japanese artisans. In the former the designs were carved out and filled with colored lacquer, and in the latter the lacquer designs consisted of circles of different colors. Chinkin-bori (sunken gold carving) technique became popular, especially in Nagasaki, during the Kyoho era (1716-35) and Wakasa-nuri (marbled color effect) began to be used in imitation of the Chinese Zonsei lacquer. Artistically, Japanese lacquer ware by the end of this era and in the early part of the Edo period reached its zenith. Lacquer during this period was often called jokei-in after an appellation of the shogun Tokugawa Tsunayoshi. Designs, techniques, backgrounds, ornamentation, and subject matter became typically Japanese. Technique, especially in makie, had become more varied, detailed, and perfected. The various methods were combined to obtain optimum artistic effect. Pictorial designs were relatively purposely simple and proportionately combined with artistic ornamentation. Pictorially the designs of the Momoyama period consisted mainly of autumnal plants, chrysanthemums, and paulownia designs in the Yamato-e style. By the end of this period and the beginning of the Edo period, there was a tendency for stronger more abstract impressionistic effects under the Koetsu and Korin schools. Artistically entire surfaces, large or small, were treated as a whole. Designs were gracefully and asymmetrically dispersed, flowing over the edges and rims of the lacquered surfaces. The designs were varied, each surface having different but blending patterns and ornamentation. Varied diapers and ornamental powderings including family crests (mon) were used to enhance the entire pictorial effect. Occasionally, as previously noted, contrasting pictorial halves using a diagonal or zigzag line were designed as in the kimono of the day. Relatively uncommon was export lacquer ware produced under European guidance of designs appealing to the Western taste and including such articles as backgammon boards and Catholic religious boxes.

Edo Period (1615-1868)

The Edo period was marked by over 250 years of peace resulting from the firm control of the Tokugawa shogunate over the local daimyo, the imperial house, and the Buddhist sects, combined with the virtual isolation of Japan from the rest of the world, with the exception of China. The arts in the first half of this period continued to flourish under the patronage of the local daimyo and the shogunate in Edo. However, toward the end of the Edo period, because of the increase in commerce and industry, all types of art became popularized and secularized under the patronage of the newly rising wealthy merchant class (chonin) as well as the common folk.

With the transfer of the shogunate to Edo, lacquer artists were attracted to Edo from Kyoto. Many lacquer artists were summoned by the shogunate, including Koami Naganori of Kyoto. The shogunate even established a lacquer workshop, calling it okoyaba, or small workshop. Edo lacquer ware ultimately surpassed that of Kyoto, both of which stressed elaborate makie techniques. The lavish use of gold and makie with technical perfection continued. Concurrently there developed the Koetsu, Korin, and Ritsuo schools, which stressed stronger, simpler, impressionistic, and more artistic lacquer ware. Here the artistic effect was obtained by the use of relatively large encrustations of lead, pewter, shell, or porcelain. Excessive ornamentation and minute, photographic, crowded, pictorial detail gave way to simple effective suggestibility. During the early 19th century court lacquer was stimulated by Tokugawa Ienari (1773-1841), who stressed lacquer work associated with popular holidays, such as the miniature furniture used during the Boys' and Girls' Festival days. During this period also, lacquer design was influenced by the realistic nature-loving aspect of the Maruyama (Okyo) school of painting. By the mid-19th century, designs adapted from the colorful ukijo-e school of painting and woodblock prints were used on lacquer work, including scenes of Hiroshige's Fifty-three Stations on the Tokaido (Fig. 151) along with pictures of typical ukiyo-e women and Kabuki actors with their resplendent colorful robes (Fig. 43). Many of the later generations of famous lacquer families—for example, the Shunsho—copied these designs, but these works can hardly be compared with the subtle, toned-down togidashi lacquer work of the earlier artists of the Shunsho family. However, along with these trends many lacquer artists still preferred and copied the more quiet, subtle designs of famous artists of their times, such as Hoitsu (Figs. 21, 223, 233).

Ultimately technical detail and perfection became paramount for the ornate, luxurious taste of the newly established merchant class. Encrustation became minute and of innumerable types of materials heavily spread over the entire ornamental surface. Tinted ivory, mother-of-pearl, malachite, coral, soapstone, gold, silver, metallic alloys, all minutely carved, were inlaid in the lacquer base. This technique of heavily encrusted work of minute detail, originated in the early 19th century, was known collectively as Shibayama work. The works were usually in poor artistic taste done for commercial purposes by special workers rather than by true lacquer artists and were usually unsigned. By the late 19th century such articles were commonly made specifically for export purposes. It is through such export items, including commercially exported netsuke, okimono, porcelains, and late woodblock prints that Japanese art has been often unfairly and falsely judged. It should be noted, however, that some excellent examples of Shibayama work exist (Figs. 49, 65, 129).

With the patronization of the arts in the provinces through the local daimyo, and their increasing popularity among the plebeian class, the handicrafts, including lacquer ware, rapidly developed in the local provinces. Specific metal and lacquer techniques were developed and became known by their provincial origins. New methods were also developed from older similar Chinese techniques. All of these new techniques placed very little stress on makie, which had already reached its maximum development and perfection.

A new type of greenish-blue iridescent thin shell work in imitation of Ming and Korean shell work became popular. It was introduced by the lacquerer Chobei about 1620, using awabi, or sea-ear shell (aogai). This method was now extensively used by the Somada school in the early 19th century, the entire design being made up of tiny iridescent pieces of shell imbedded in a rich black lacquer background (Figs. 44, 78, 80, 160). This style, too, ultimately degenerated into overdetailed ornateness. Different techniques of carved lacquer in the Chinese manner were introduced. These included guri, Zonsei-nuri, and Zokoku-nuri. Zonsei-nuri was originated by the lacquerer Zonsei of the 17th century, and Zokoku-nuri by Tamakaji Zokoku of Takamatsu, in Shikoku, in the mid-19th century. Other new methods included multicolored lacquer techniques, such as Tsugaru-nuri, made for the daimyo of Tsugaru in Hirosaki, and Wakasa-nuri, made in the province of Wakasa. The carved tsuishu lacquer was made in Edo under the shogunate's patronage by the descendants of the Tsuishu family. Various types of transparent lacquer techniques also developed in other provinces—for example, Hida Shunkei in Hida, Noshiro Shunkei in Noshiro in Akita Prefecture (both in the mid-17th century), and Ukitsu-nuri, made by Ukitsu in Nagoya in the mid-19th century. Other provincial techniques were Aizu-nuri in Aizu-Wakamatsu, Kuroe-nuri in Kii, and Awano Shunkei in Ibaraki. Chinkin, known as Wajima ware, was made in Noto Province in the mid-Edo period. An oil-painting technique was practiced in Etchu Province under the local name of Jogahana, which was originated by Hata Jigoemon Yoshinaga in the Momoyama period. The special lacquer-painting technique called Johoji lacquer was done in the village of that name in the province of Mutsu.

Various schools of lacquerers and outstanding lacquer families arose during the Edo period. The Koami, Koma, Kajikawa, and Tsuishu (Yosei) families were just a few, all of whom worked for the court and the shogun-ate (Figs. 45, 46). Various schools using encrustations, such as Somada and Shibayama and the impressionistic school of Koetsu, Soetsu, and Korin, have already been mentioned. Famous individual artists who flourished throughout the Edo period included Shiomi Masanari, Iizuka Toyo, and Igarashi. Doho, the originator of Kaga makie.

The variety of lacquer techniques during the Edo period was applied to a similar expanding variety of forms and subject matter. Besides inro, innumerable types of articles were lacquered, including eating utensils, such as bowls and cups; personal utensils like hair combs, powder brushes, pipes and pipe cases; and various boxes, such as tobacco boxes, tobacco cabinets, pipe sheaths, jewel boxes, cosmetic boxes, needle boxes, string boxes, tea boxes, shell boxes, perfume boxes, incense boxes, lunch and food (picnic) boxes, etc. Similarly, the designs and subject matter of the lacquered articles revealed more variety. Subject matter was greatly expanded and included now every aspect of nature from complete landscape scenes to a single flower or insect (Figs. 47, 48). Animals, fish, fowl, fruit, or a single leaf was fit subject matter. Similarly, along with the conventional portrayal of gods, heroes, warriors, famous poets, mythological creatures, and other legendary characters, more commonplace subjects and scenes from everyday Japanese life were depicted (Fig. 49). However, extremes of banality did not exist in lacquer ware as in the more popular, less expensive art forms, such as woodblock prints and netsuke. Many of the painters of the popular schools made books of sketches (shita-e) which were used as designs for small lacquered articles, such as inro. Lacquer techniques also expanded to include clever imitations of natural wood, such as mokume and shitan-nuri. Clever artists would also have lacquer simulate various metals, such as iron or old bronze, or various types of pottery. Metal (sword furniture) artists would combine their talents with those of the lacquer artist by adding various types of beautiful carved encrustations (Figs. 66, 93, 94). Takamakie was commonly used to copy works of great masters of painting. Ultimately, by the end of the Edo period, lacquer ware lost its simple artistic effect and degenerated into detailed overornate pictorial designs as a result of the lavish demands of the rich merchant class and the increased volume of production using less expensive techniques. Finally, with the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1867, the loss of patronage of the arts through the breakup of the feudal system, the disbanding of the samurai class, and the rise in commodity prices resulting from increased trade with the Western world, the costly art of lacquering completely degenerated. The last outstanding lacquer art school in Japan was headed by the famous artist Shibata Zeshin (1807-91), who followed the fine traditions of this great art of the famous lacquer artists of the past (Figs. 12, 50). After the 19th century the great schools of lacquerers ceased to exist, there remaining in the interim but a handful of good individual lacquer artists.

Modern Period (1868 to present)

During the Meiji era (1868-1912) the emperor Meiji, aware of the decline of lacquer, ordered the establishment of a makie factory in the Imperial Household Department and used Kawanobe Itcho and other lacquer artists to work for him. Inferior lacquer, made basically on a small factory scale, was exported on a commercial basis to the West. Many well-known Occidental art lovers at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century became interested in the Japanese handicrafts, including lacquer, and famous collections were thereby formed. Subsequently many were broken up at auction or dispersed to Western museums. Special exhibitions were held by the Japanese to reveal to the rest of the world the wonders of their lacquer art. Unfortunately, however, economic and cultural circumstances prevented the regrowth of Japanese lacquer art. The Tokyo Fine Arts School, established in 1887, includes a Lacquer Art Department whose first chief was Ogawa Shomin. Subsequently this position was held by Kawanobe Itcho and Shirayama Shosai (1853-1923), the last, and perhaps the greatest of Japan's modern lacquer artists (Figs. 143, 219). Shosai, Zeshin, and Taishin were also appointed as court artists.

During the early part of the 20th century the working lacquer artists were divided into two groups. The first group were those whose pictorial designs were strongly influenced by Western modernistic art and the other group consisted of those who followed the traditional Japanese style of lacquer art. Among the modern school were Yamazaki Kakutaro, Tsuji Koten, and Matsuoka Taiwa. Among the classical school were Yoshida Jun'ichiro, Takano Shozan and the well-known lacquerer Ma-tsuda Gonroku, who is still alive at the present time.

2. INRO. Noh dancer portraying a shojo. Signed: Kanshosai. Noh dancer in takamakie with encrustation of mother-of-pearl on a roiro ground. 3¹/₁₆" x 3¹/₄" x ⁷/₈". 3 cases and lid.

3. INRO. Dried fish and foliage. Signed: Toyo. The fish is done in silver takamakie, with the eye inlaid in mother-of-pearl on a roiro ground. 3¹/₄" x 2" x ⁷/₈". 4 cases and lid.

4. INRO. Tea bowl and kobako. Unsigned. The tea bowl is in orange and brown takamakie simulating the coarse texture of Raku ware. The kobako is in dark-red lacquer in imitation of guri lacquer on a gold ground. 3¹/₂" x 1⁷/₈" x 1". 5 cases and lid.

5. OPPOSITE SIDE of inro in Fig. 4. Colored takamakie in medium relief, simulating a tea caddy partially enclosed within its brocade bag. Note the clever portrayal of the drip glaze, ivory lid, and silken cord of the bag—all realistically executed in appropriately textured lacquer.

6. INRO. Pheasant. Signed: Kajikawa Bunryusai. The bird is executed in red, orange, and yellow togidashi on a dark-green ground. The rocks, tree, and stream are done in silver and gold togidashi highlighted with tiny pieces of aogai. 3³/₈" x 1⁷/₈" x 1". 4 cases and lid.

7. SAYA INRO. Court lady. Signed: Shunsui. Design in iroe togidashi on roiro ground; sheath in gold hiramakie. 3³/₈" x 2¹/₄" x ⁷/₈". 4 cases and lid.

8. INRO. Goose on a veranda (illustrating the story of Ogishi). Style of Tsuchida Soetsu. The goose is executed in slightly raised vertical strips of inlaid mother-of-pearl. The veranda is in low gold taka-makie, mother-of-pearl, and pewter on a reddish-brown ground. 3" x 2⁵/₈" x 1". 2 cases and lid.

9. KOGO (inside cover of kogo in Fig. 29). Design of various types of chrysanthemums in shades of gold and silver togidashi on an oki-hirame ground.

10. INRO. (bottom surface). Close-up of geometric designs in minute Somada-style iridescent aogai shell, silver, and gold.

11. INRO. Sea shells. Signed: Shibata Zeshin. Note the typical Zeshin wave design done in brown lacquer against a dull tea-green ground, with foliage and shells in gold lacquer and flat aogai shell. 3" x 2¹/₈" x 1". 4 cases and lid.

12. INRO. Dragon and clouds. Signed: Zeshin. The design is in the style of the Myochin armorers, imitating to perfection a rust-iron ground. It is executed in low relief. 3⁵/₁₆" x 2¹³/₁₆" x ³/₄". 3 cases and lid.

13. INRO. Musical instruments. Signed: Kajikawa. The instruments depicted are the biwa (center), the koto (top), and a drum (right). Note the beautiful brown mokume imitating wood grain on the biwa. The ground is in cloudlike mura nashiji. 3¹/₄" x 2³/₈" x 1". 4 cases and lid.

14. INRO. Samurai on a horse. Signed: Kajikawa. The design is in gold, silver, red, and black low takamakie on a lustrous red-gold gyobu nashiji ground. The technique used inside the lid and the lips is also gyobu nashiji. 3⁵/₈" x 1⁷/₈" x 1". 5 cases and lid.

15. INRO. Praying mantis and autumn plants. Signed: Hasegawa Shigeyoshi. The large leaves and gourds are done in tiny gold mosaics of oki-hirame. The praying mantis is in gold and green takamakie. The ground is a magnificent red-blue-green iridescent mosaic of flatly encrusted aogai shell, further illustrating the oki-hirame technique. 4³/₁₆" x 2¹/₈" x 1¹/₄". 4 cases and lid.

16. INRO. Phoenix. Signed: Kajikawa. The phoenix is seen flying over the branches of a paulownia tree and a rivulet. Some of the leaves and parts of the bird are done in gold hyomon technique, the remainder being in gold takamakie. The rivulet is done in togidashi and the adjacent shore in kiri-gane. The ground is in gold fundame. 3³/₄" x 1⁷/₈" x ¹⁵/₁₆". 5 cases and lid.

18. NETSUKE. Two puppies. Signed: Kaigyokusai. Finely carved ivory showing two playful puppies in rounded form with encrusted red eyes of hornbill. 1¹/₄" high.

19. INRO. Two puppies. Signed: Koma Kansai. Two puppies in low takamakie, one in silver, the other in gold, on a gold gyobu ground. 3⁵/₈" x 2³/₈" x 1". 4 cases and lid. Matching lacquer manju netsuke: 1³/₈" x ³/₄".

20. INRO. Crows and tree branches. Signed: Ume-hara Koryusai. Gold fundame ground with design in sumie lacquer technique. 3³/₈" x 3" x 1". 4 cases and lid.

21. INRO. Cherry blossoms. Signed: Yoyusai (after a design of Hoitsu). Flowers in low gold takamakie on a gold fundame ground. 2³/₄" x 2¹/₄" x ⁷/₈". 3 cases and lid.

22. INRO. Landscape, signed: Kanshosai (Toyo). Design in sumie lacquer technique on a gold fundame ground, imitating the Sesshu style of painting. The picture is framed in aogai against a red-and-gold background simulating a brocade mounting. 3⁵/₈" x 2¹/₁₆" x 1¹/₄". 4 cases and lid.

23. INRO. Pine tree. Signed: Kanshosai. Design in gold togidashi on a black ground. 3¹/₈" x 2¹/₈" x ⁷/₈". 4 cases and lid.

24. INRO. One hundred ju characters (antique versions of character for longevity). Unsigned. The characters are in gold or silver togidashi on a roiro ground and are applied at various levels in the layers of lacquer so as to produce varying tonalities of color and depth. 3³/₄" x 1⁷/₈" x 1¹/₁₆". 5 cases and lid.

25. INRO (tobacco-box shape). Takarabune. Signed: Zeshin. On a tea-green ground the various articles carried by the treasure ship are executed in low gold takamakie with inlaid mother-of-pearl and gold kirigane. The waves are done in the typical style of Zeshin. Note also the overall asymmetry of design. 2³/₈" x 2³/₄" x ⁵/₈". 1 case and lid.

26. INRO. Carp leaping up a waterfall, Signed: Yoshi Kanetomo. The carp is in encrusted mother-of-pearl in high relief. The waterfall is done in silver makie on a gold yasuriko ground. 3¹/₂" x 2³/₈" x ⁵/₈". 4 cases and lid.

27. DETAIL of inro in Fig. 26, showing encrusted carp and intricate carving of the mother-of-pearl. Note the impression of motion created by having part of the tail of the fish submerged beneath the falling water.

28. INRO. Chrysanthemums. Signed: Koma Kansai. The chrysanthemums are in low black takamakie on a roiro ground. 2⁵/₈" x 2³/₈" x ⁷/₈". 3 cases and lid.

29. KOGO. Tea-ceremony house. Signed: Mori-kazu. A heart-shaped kogo with an extremely asymmetrical design created by alternating rectangles of silver and black. The remainder of the design is in gold takamakie on a roiro ground. 3" x 3⁷/₈" x ³/₄". (See Fig. 9 for inside cover.)

30. INRO. Plum blossoms. Signed: Tatsuke Takamitsu. The branches are executed in light-brown takamakie, with the buds in high relief of encrusted mother-of-pearl. The ground is in dark-brown coarse-textured lacquer (sabiji) simulating the bark of a tree. 2¹/₈" x 2¹/₈" x ¹⁵/₁₆". 2 cases and lid.

31. INRO. Daruma with fly whisk. Signed: Eisen. The Daruma is in red lacquer with a carved wooden face and inlaid ivory eyes. 3⁵/₁₆" x 1¹¹/₁₆" x 1¹/₁₆". 1 case and lid.

32. INRO. Nio temple guardian. Unsigned. The design is executed in gold togidashi on a roiro ground. 3³/₈" x 2" x 1¹/₄". 1 case and lid.

33. DETAIL of inro in Fig. 32, showing e-nashiji on robe of Nio temple guardian.

34. INRO of Fig. 32 opened to show accompanying zushi. Typical two-section inro used to carry a portable shrine.

35. NETSUKE. Unsigned. Lacquer manju with ground of diaper-work in geometric patterns created by inlaid iridescent mother-of-pearl and gold kirigane, which sets off a fan-shaped medallion design of an egret perched on a boat under a crescent moon. 1¹³/₁₆" x ¹⁵/₁₆".

36. INRO. Floral and religious symbols. Unsigned. The design is created by the use of overlapping asymmetrically placed medallions in shades of gold hiramakie and low takamakie on a gold fundame ground. 3¹/₂" x 2¹/₄" x ¹³/₁₆". 4 cases and lid.

37. INRO. Two men neck-wrestling. Signed: Nakayama. Design in typical Shibayama style of colorful high encrustations of mother-of-pearl, soapstone, and ivory on a gold lacquer ground. This is encircled by powderings of crests on an oki-hirame ground. 3⁵/₈" x 2¹¹/₁₆" x 1¹/₄". 2 cases and lid.

38. SIDE VIEW of inro in Fig. 37, showing various circular crests in silver and gold hiramakie against a gold gyobu ground.

39. INRO. Chinese scepter and leaves. Signed: Keigai. The design is encrusted on natural sugi wood. The scepter is executed in carved tsui-shu, and the leaves are in mother-of-pearl and gold takamakie. 3¹/₄" x 2³/₈" x ⁷/₈". 3 cases and lid.

40. DETAIL of inro in Fig. 39, showing enlargement of encrustation in carved tsuishu lacquer in asa-no-ha pattern.

41. SUZURI-BAKO (inside cover). Unsigned. Middle Edo period. This detail reveals the ashide-e technique within a design of flying sparrows and cranes executed in gold lacquer. The ideograms signify longevity.

42. KOBAKO.. Chrysanthemum design. Unsigned. Muromachi period. The stylized design of the chrysanthemums is done in gold lacquer with fine black outlines on a gold ground. The rims are in pewter. 2¹/₈" x 2¹/₈" x 1¹/₂".

43. INRO. Ukiyo-e figure. Signed: Shunsho. The design, executed in green, red, and gold togidashi, depicts a graceful lady on a roiro ground. 3¹/₂ " x 2¹/₈" x 1". 4 cases and lid.

44. INRO. Boy beating a drum. Unsigned. Somada school. Design executed in typical colorful iridescent aogai shell along with silver and gold inlays on a black ground. External cord channels and top and bottom surfaces are also decorated in geometric patterns of aogai shell. 3¹/₂" x 1⁷/₈" x 1¹/₄". 3 cases and lid.

45. INRO. Mount Fuji. Signed: Koma Kansai. Design in medallion form showing Mount Fuji surrounded by clouds and waves. The summit of the mountain and the clouds are done in silver lacquer, the ground of the medallion in gold, and the ground encircling the medallion in gold oki-hirame. 2¹⁵/₁₆" x 3¹/₁₆" x ⁷/₈". 3 cases and lid.

46. INRO. Praying mantis and fan. Signed: Kajikawa. The design is executed in gold in low takamakie on a gold ground. 3¹/₁₆" x ³/₄" x 1¹/₁₆". 4 cases and lid.

47. INRO. Stag beetle. Signed: Jitokusai (Gyokuzan). The design is in a highly polished tortoise-shell-colored lacquer in low taka-makie on a gray-black coarse bark ground. 3¹/₈" x 2³/₁₆" x ³/₄". 4 cases and lid.

48. INRO. Peony. Signed: Toshi. The single flower is executed in moderate relief in black takamakie on a gold oki-hirame ground. 2¹/₈" x 1³/₄" x ⁵/₈". 3 cases and lid.

49. INRO. Rooster and chicks. Signed: Shibayama yasumasa. The design is done in colorful raised mother-of-pearl, coral, and gold inlays on a natural ground of sugi (cryptomeria) wood. 3⁷/₈" x 2³/₈" x 1". 3 cases and lid.

50. INRO. Daruma. Signed: Zeshin. The design represents a sumie painting and is executed in red and black togidashi against a gold background. The overall ground is a reddish brown. This unusually constructed inro has a long lid completely enclosing 3 cases. 2⁵/₈" x 1¹³/₁₆" x 1".

51. DETAIL of hirame nashiji ground used on inside of a lacquer box by Ritsuo.

52. INRO. Dappled horse at a stream surrounded by the Seven Grasses of Autumn. Signed: Toyo. The design is executed in gold, silver, and red hiramakie with fine silver and gold kirigane and inlaid mother-of-pearl on a gold fundame ground. 3⁷/₈" x 2¹/₈" x 1³/₁₆". 4 cases and lid.

53. DETAIL of inro in Fig. 52, showing kirigane technique used for the design of the flowers surrounding the horse and for part of the saddle. (See Fig. 106 for another detail.)

54. INRO. Clouds and water. Signed: Koma Yasutada. The design is mainly in togidashi on a black ground sprinkled with fine gold powdering (yasuriko). The clouds are in chiriji. 3⁵/₈" x 2³/₈" x ³/₄". 4 cases and lid.

55. DETAIL of inro in Fig. 54, illustrating chiriji. Note also the surrounding yasuriko ground.

56. INRO. Gama Sennin and toad. Signed: Nagaharu (Joi). The gourd-shaped metallic insert of Gama Sennin and the toad was made by the famous Nara metal expert Joi in shibu-ichi. The ground is gold kirigane. 2³/₈" x 2¹/₂" x 1". 3 cases and lid.

57. DETAIL of inro in Fig. 56, showing kirigane technique.

58. INRO. Butterflies against chrysanthemum background. Signed: Toyo (with kakihan). The butterflies are done in encrusted mother-of-pearl, gold, shakudo, and tortoise shell. The ground is gold fundame with a design of stylized gold chrysanthemums in hira-makie. 3¹/₈" x 2³/₄" x ⁷/₈". 4 cases and lid.

59. INRO. Chinese nobleman on donkey with attendant. Signed: Zeshin. The design is done in low black takamakie on a dull black ground. Note the simulated chips on the edges of the inro and the fine hairline simulated cracks in the ground. 2¹/₂" x 2" x ³/₄". 1 case and lid.

60. OLD CHINESE INK CAKE. Mountain landscape. Crenated shape. Detailed, slightly raised design which is usually made by being pressed rather than carved. 2⁹/₁₆" x 2¹/₁₆" x ¹/₂".

61. TSUBA.. Unsigned. Guri-bori metal technique revealing typical geometric pattern. 2³/₄" x 2⁵/₈" x ³/₁₆".

62. BOWL. Hidehira ware. Unsigned. Floral design in red and gold on a black ground. The lacquer on the inside of the bowl is roughened from use of the bowl to contain hot food. Widest diameter: 5¹/₈"; height: 3¹/₂".

63. DETAIL of Kamakura-bori technique, showing geometric design with red surface layer and underlying black lacquer coat where it is worn down. Ashikaga period.

64. INRO (tobacco-box shape). Fox. Signed: Ze-shin. The entire design is in incised lacquer on a roiro ground. 2⁵/₈" x 2³/₈" x 1¹/₈". 1 case and lid.

65. INRO. Jurojin, child, and deer. Signed: Shibayama and Kanshosai (lacquer artist). Jurojin and the child are done in metal encrustations of silver, gold, copper, shakudo, and shibuichi. The deer are inlaid mother-of-pearl. The landscape is in gold takamakie and kirigane on a gold ground. 4" x 2¹/₁₆" x 1³/₈". 5 cases and lid.

66. INRO. Yamabushi. Signed: Ishiguro Masatsune, with lacquer work by Koma Kyuhaku. The yamabushi is done in encrusted raised metals: shakudo, gold, silver, and copper. The lacquer is gold takamakie on a gold ground. 3" x 2³/₈" x 1¹/₈". 4 cases and lid.