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Оглавление3 Lacquer Manufacture and Techniques
Chemical and Physical Properties
Oriental lacquer is not in the Western sense a varnish. A varnish is mainly a gum dissolved in a volatile liquid, such as turpentine, which evaporates, leaving a shiny glaze. Oriental lacquer (except Indian lac, which is the gummy deposit of the insect Coccus lacca) comes from the thick sap of a tree called the urushi (Rhus vernicifera), a species of sumac, which when dried, needs thorough polishing to obtain a highly glazed surface. A knowledge of the chemical breakdown and physical reactions of Japanese lacquer gives us a better understanding of its manufacture and durability. Lacquer consists of 60-85% urushic acid (C14H18O2), a gum (3-6.5%) similar to gum arabic, an albuminoid (1.7-3.5%), a trace of a volatile acid and water (10-34%). The best lacquer is the most transparent, most resistant to solvents and water and that which does not tend to dry up, crumble, or warp with age. The most important process in lacquer manufacture is the slow drying and hardening of lacquer. Lacquer dries best between 68° and 80° F and in the presence of moisture. Chemically the hardening process consists of the albumin acting on the urushic acid, probably as a ferment, with the water acting as a solvent on the albumin so that it can combine with the urushic acid. This probably explains why moisture is actually necessary for liquid lacquer to harden. The gum plays no part in the hardening process but keeps the various components in an emulsion. This hardening of the lacquer is accompanied by the absorption of one atom of hydrogen by one molecule of urushic acid.
C14H18O2 + O --> C14H18O3 (oxyurushic acid). Except for concentrated nitric acid, the oxyurushic acid is insoluble in every solvent, even boiling sulphuric acid, and is stable with temperatures below 200°. The gum and albumin, however, are attacked by concentrated acids and alkalis but not by the solvents (alcohol, ether, benzene, ammonia, etc.). Water may cause the gum to swell, and when drying occurs there may occur crumbling and warping, especially in the cheaper lacquer, in which there is more gum. Old lacquer (50-100 years old), through gradual chemical changes in the gum, is therefore not affected by water. In general it is apparent from the preceding chemical discussion, and confirmed by practical application, that the best lacquer has the highest percentage of urushic acid (80-85%), a corresponding low percentage of water (10%), and relatively little gum and albumin. The durability of good, old lacquer is dramatically illustrated in the sinking in 1874 of the French steamer Nil, which was carrying back Japanese art objects from the Vienna exposition. Eighteen months later the old lacquer ware was recovered from the ocean and found to be in perfect condition. Chinese lacquer is somewhat inferior to Japanese lacquer because of the lower percentage (55%) of urushic acid and probably also because of the fact that it is softened by mixing with a vegetable oil. Also, Chinese flat lacquer is not made with as many layers of lacquer as are works done by the Japanese artisan.
Preparation of Various Lacquers
As noted, Japanese lacquer comes from the thick sap of a tree called the urushi. Originally these trees were planted by order of the government. In ten years a tree grows to about ten feet high and will yield two to three ounces of sap. The trees are tapped between June and October. The spring sap is considered too watery, the midsummer sap being the best in quality. Special tools and methods are used for obtaining the sap. In general, when the tree is two to ten years old it is incised at specific levels, averaging about 25 cuts. Cuts are also made into the branches. The exuding lacquer is scraped into bamboo pots (go). The crude thick creamy lacquer called urushi is then filtered of impurities through a cloth. When filtered it is called ki-urushi. Lacquer taken from different parts of the tree and that taken from older trees have different characteristics. Each type of lacquer so obtained is kept separately, and subsequently each is used for specific purposes. Thus the sap taken from the trunk of very old trees (100-200 years old) produces the best transparent lacquer and is called suki-urushi. Similarly, the branch lacquer, or seskime-urushi, is highly desired, since when dry it becomes extremely hard. However, it dries more slowly than trunk lacquer.
The excess water in the lacquer is evaporated, paradoxically, by adding small amounts of water. Lacquer will not dry perfectly in the open air, but only in a damp enclosed atmosphere between 68° and 80° F. In drying lacquer the Japanese enclose the object in a damp cupboard, damp press (muro), or damp cellar. The press is kept humid by repeated sponging down with water. It may require two to three days for one layer of lacquer to dry and in some cases up to one month for thorough drying. In general, a layer of lacquer is applied to the prepared object, which is dried in the damp press, and then polished. This process is repeated numerous times, employing different types of lacquer, different periods of drying, and different techniques of polishing. This is all done preparatory to the actual process of ornamentation. The following is a partial list of the different types of lacquer, their production, and their uses:
1) middle-coating lacquer (naka-nuri-urushi). Used for middle coats and prepared by thoroughly evaporating good ki-urushi.
2) black lacquer (ro-urushi). Prepared from crude or branch lacquer by the addition of a black solution (haguro) made by boiling iron filings in strong rice vinegar.
3) inside-line lacquer (ke-uchi-urushi). Made from shita-maki-urushi (undercoat lacquer), which in turn is made from seshime-urushi and iron oxide. It is kept for months in order to thicken, thereby allowing fine lines to be drawn on raised work. The consistency prevents the lines from spreading and also gives the desired relief.
4) shading lacquer (kuma-urushi). Prepared from jo-hana-urushi and lampblack, which lacquer in turn is made by adding small amounts of oil and finishing lacquer. It is used for shading with very delicate lines on flat and raised ware.
5) raising lacquer (taka-maki-urushi). Made by boiling ro-urushi, lampblack, and camphor. This lacquer is applied thickly. The camphor renders the lacquer soft, and it dries slowly and evenly. In this way the top layer does not dry first, and subsequent cracking of the top layer does not occur.
6) ro-se-urushi. Made from a mixture of seshime and ro-urushi. It is used as a lacquer base to imbed metallic powders or flakes of gold, silver, or tin.
7) pear-basis lacquer (nashiji-urushi). Transparent lacquer obtained from old trees. It is put over the metallic powderings.
8) sabi. Composed of 2 parts burnt clay and 11/2 parts seshime-urushi. It is used to build up the high relief of takamakie.
9) jinoko. Composed of 1 part burnt clay and 2 parts seshime-urushi.
10) suki-urushi. The best crude lacquer, used for colored lacquer.
Lacquer is colored by the addition of various pigments, but no vegetable colors are used, since they are destroyed by the lacquer and will fade. Therefore colors, such as white and purple, are not seen in early lacquer work. In general, colors are used either pulverized as powders or mixed with metallic powders, the design being made by dusting the appropriate powders on the sticky lacquer. In other cases the lacquer itself is colored by mixing it with colored pigments. The lacquer used for this purpose is called suki-urushi. Very occasionally special color techniques are used, such as mixing lacquer with lead oxide and oil (see mitsuda-e, page 123). The following is a partial list of colored lacquers:
1) black lacquer (ro-urushi). Prepared by mixing lacquer with a black solution obtained by boiling iron filings with vinegar. Lampblack is used in more modern works instead of iron; it is made from pine wood and was not used before the early 18th century. The iron type tends to fade and become brown with age, appearing like tortoise shell.
2) vermilion lacquer (shu-urushi). Made from ki-urushi or suki-urushi, vermilion, and oil. It is a dull red. For inferior works, red oxide of iron (benigara) is used instead of vermilion.
3) browns. These are obtained by mixing various proportions of reds and blacks.
4) chrome-yellow lacquer (kio=chrome; ki-urushi-ji=yellow lacquer).
5) green lacquer (sei-shitsu or ao-urushi). Made by mixing kio and Prussian blue (bero-ai).
6) purple powder (murasaki-ko). Made from white lead and magenta roseine (to-beni).
7) white lacquer: silicate powder. (See Jogahana, page 123.)
Along with the above basic colors various metallic powders were used by themselves, in combination or with the above pigments to produce different degrees of shading. Gold, silver, and copper powders were most commonly used.
Preparation of the Core
Lacquered objects usually have a core or structure upon which the lacquer is applied. This core usually consists of wood. However, lacquer may be used to decorate innumerable other types of materials which often require specialized preparatory techniques both to make the lacquer adhere to the object and to render the proper decorative effect. The techniques of lacquering on such materials as metal, ivory, tortoise shell, porcelain, etc., will therefore be described separately. Lacquer was occasionally used for painting and even as decoration on fabrics. In most cases however, the techniques of applying the lacquer, building it up to the desired thickness, and the final application of the pictorial and decorative effects remain the same irrespective of the underlying core.
The wooden core is called kiji and is prepared by a specialist, the joiner. The type and thickness of the wood depends upon the object to be manufactured, which might be anything from a large piece of furniture or an entire temple building to a tiny incense box. Hinoki (Japanese cypress) is best suited for making boxes, including inro, as it does not warp or split. On the other hand hinoki was not usually used for such objects as netsuke because it is soft and tends to wear down. Most sword sheaths were made from honoki (Magnolia hypoleuca), a light wood; carved figures from himekomatsu (a species of pine), which does not split; cups and bowls from sakura (cherry), which is suitable for lathing; and other woods such as keyaki (zelkova) for their ornamental grain. Ornamental woods were either left natural or covered with transparent lacquers to bring out their beautiful color or grain (see "Transparent Lacquer," page 133). Occasionally only parts of such woods were lacquered or they were used for encrustations as practiced by Ritsuo. The wood of the camphor laurel is not suitable for lacquering because its camphor content acts on the lacquer. Woods to be lacquered were very well seasoned, some inro cores being hung up to dry for as long as three years before being lacquered.
The lacquered boxes (including inro) invariably have almost airtight snugly fitting parts, such as a lid or fitted tiers, or boxes enclosed within a parent box. The wooden core was so carefully prepared as to account for the thickness of the subsequent lacquer to be applied and still permit accurate coadaptation of the component parts of the object. And even then, after centuries of use and exposure to varying climates and temperatures, the boxes remain uncracked, unwarped, and perfectly fitting. Such was the extreme care and accuracy involved in the preparation of the wooden core.
The prepared wooden core was then primed and covered with numerous layers of lacquer by a special class of lacquerers called the nurimono-shi or nuri-ya, and finally the decorative and pictorial work was done by the more highly esteemed lacquer painters, or makie-shi. There was even further specialization of lacquerers, such as mother-of-pearl inlayers (aogai-shi) and even sword-sheath lacquerers (saya-shi). Mother-of-pearl itself was processed and prepared by special craftsmen. Frequently the design itself was done by a noted painter or was copied from a famous painting. Metal artists often combined their talents with those of the lacquerer and supplemented the work with metal encrustations. Metal inro were made by metal artists, and at other times lacquer was applied to a metallic base by the lacquer artist. The combining of talents among specialized Japanese artisans was not uncommon. Many famous painters, such as Korin and Zeshin, were also adept with the handicrafts. The handicrafts were not looked down upon as in China but were even practiced among the patrons of the arts along with painting, poetry, and calligraphy.
Honji: Priming the Core
Having outlined the process in the preparation of the wooden core and the production and use of the various basic lacquers, we are now in a position to understand how the various layers of lacquer are specifically applied to the basic wood. "Real basis" (honji) is the term used to denote the best black lacquer on wood. It should be again noted that the "basis" is done by the nurimono-shi and is merely preparatory for the lacquer painter, who then takes over to ornament the prepared lacquer base. The same "basis" is used on a lacquer foundation for colored or gold lacquer work. Similarly the same lacquer foundation is used even in raised lacquer work, although less commonly raised lacquer (takamakie) may be done on a natural wood base. In general after the lacquer base is applied the design is brought out by repeated dustings of metallic and colored powders associated with repeated applications of lacquer, drying, and polishing. In other cases the design is accomplished by superimposing layers of colored lacquer. Lastly the design may be brought out by inlaying or deeply encrusting various precarved designs made of gold, silver, mother-of-pearl, ivory, pottery, etc.
The steps used in honji consists roughly of the following. The wood is primed by adding a layer of seshime-urushi and then put in the damp press. Then the channels and joints are covered by means of a spatula with a mixture of seshime-urushi, chopped hemp, and rice starch, and the piece is again placed in the press. This layer is now rubbed down, and a layer of sabi is applied. After more time in the press the piece is rubbed down again. Then it is covered with hempen cloth (nuno) to prevent the wood from cracking and the joints from springing. Following this, several layers of mixtures of lacquer and clay are applied, followed by drying in the damp press each time and polishing each time after the drying process. The true lacquer stages now occur, and the lacquers are applied with a brush of human hair.
First the middle-coat lacquer is applied and then multiple layers of ro-urushi (black lacquer), followed by more and more careful polishing with powdered charcoal. The object is finally polished with a mixture of burnt Inari clay reduced to impalpable fine powder, and calcined deerhorn (tsuno-ko) is applied with cotton cloth touched with oil. The final coats are of seshime-urushi followed by drying and polishing with powdered deer's-horn ashes applied with the finger.
Up to sixty separate steps may be used in applying the basic lacquer layers on the wooden core. The minimal time used for just the damp press is twenty-two days, and sometimes thorough drying of one lacquer layer may take up to one month. A well-prepared lacquer base prevents warping, seals in the wooden resin, and does not allow the slight undulations or irregularities of the wood to show through.
Materials and Techniques of Ornamentation
After the honji is completed the lacquer painter commences his work. This consists essentially in transferring a prepared design over the prepared lacquer base and then filling it in according to the method he has chosen. At this point it should be stressed that to the lacquer artist the background is just as essential as the design itself. While in many cases the design is set off on a completely plain black or other colored lacquer background, more often than not the background is enhanced by dusting with various metallic powders and flakes. This technique is extremely important and is called nashiji, or pear ground. This technique is also used on the risers and on the inside of the inro cases as well as the insides and bottoms of the majority of lacquer boxes.
The design itself is usually done as follows: after the groundwork is completed the design is drawn on one side of the specially prepared paper with brush and ink. Then, using a fine brush (neji-fude) composed of the hair from the back of ship rats, the design is traced on the opposite side of the paper using moist (heated) lacquer. The finished design is then rubbed off onto the lacquered surface using a whalebone spatula. The lines are subsequently dusted with metallic powders and lacquer (ro-se-urushi). The entire design is now built up to the desired height or effect by repeated dustings using various types and sizes of brushes and dusting tubes (tsutsu) covered with fine gauze mesh. Repeated layers of lacquer followed by drying and repeated grinding down and polishing are also necessary. Similarly, colored lacquer may be superimposed in the same way. By using alternate layers of dustings and coats of lacquer, the design is gradually built up. In this way the artist is actually working in a three-dimensional medium even though the entire thickness of the design through the repeated rubbings may only be 2-3 mm. thick. Similarly, the design may be ultimately constructed as a completely flat surface and still maintain the three-dimensional effect by means of slight shadings in tones and the varying depths in the lacquer in which the dustings are done. It should also be noted that the colors themselves are altered according to the depth in which they are placed in the amber-colored lacquer layers. All of these factors have to be taken into account by the lacquer artist, who must be able to visualize step by step in advance the ultimate complete work, as any error in judgment cannot; be rectified by removal or erasure. The additional processes involved in the various lacquer techniques will be described separately.
In metallic dusting the following technical points should be noted: 1) deer's-hair brushes (menso) are used for spreading on thick lacquer preparations; 2) kebo, or horsehair brushes, of different sizes are used for applying gold dust; 3) white horsehair brushes for drawing coarser outlines, and 4) rat's-hair brushes (neji-fude) for drawing finer outlines. These are just some of the brushes used. Tsutsu, or dusting tubes, consist of various-sized hollow tubes of bamboo and swan and crane quills, cut at each end at an acute angle and covered at one end with different-gauge gauzes for application of different grades of fineness of the powders. Special sticks (hirame-fude) are used to lift tiny scales or squares of metal foil for application to the tacky lacquer surfaces
Various metals and alloys are used, many of the alloys being indigenous to the Japanese artisan. The metallic powders are also mixed with colored powdered pigments. The following is a partial list of the various metallic dusts, Different shading is obtained according to the amount of gold or silver dust used.
gold= kin or ogon (literally, "yellow metal"); yaki-kin (literally, "burnt gold" or gold or a brassy color)
silver= gin
copper =akagane (literally, "red metal")
iron= tetsu or kurogane (literally, "black metal")
varying shades of "pale" gold:
koban-kin or koban=10 parts gold, 2.6 parts silver
jiki-ban=10 parts gold, 3.1 parts silver
namban=10 parts gold, 3.6 parts silver
shakudo-fun=7 parts gold, 3 parts copper (copper tint)
Combinations of metallic powders and pigments are as follows:
aka-fun (literally, "red powder")=gold, koban, or silver powder with vermilion and charcoal (bronze effect)
kuro-fun (literally, "black powder")=gold, koban, or silver dust with charcoal
nezumi-iro-jun (literally, "gray powder")=silver dust and charcoal in equal portions, with a trace of vermilion
kuri-iro-fun (literally, " chestnut-colored powder")=one-half gold dust and one-half powdered camellia charcoal and vermilion
shu-kin=an admixture of gold dust and cinnabar
The metals are made in different grades of fineness, different sizes, and different shapes. The first type consists of metal powders: yasuriko or yasuri-fun (filings or file powders), which are made from pure gold or the lighter-colored koban-kin (gold and silver alloy) or pure silver (Figs. 54, 55). They are graded into twelve grades of fineness, from the coarsest (ara-tsune) to the finest (usuji). However, an even finer powder called keshi-fun is made only out of gold or koban. Each of the twelve grades has a different name.
The second type consists of scale dusts, or hirame (flat eye), also prepared from gold, silver, and koban-kin (Fig. 51), They have eight different sizes, from the largest (dai-dai-ichi) to the smallest (saki) and are made by flattening metallic filings.
The third group, called nashiji (pear ground), consists also of irregular flattened flakes made from pure gold, koban-kin, jiki-ban, namban, and pure silver (Fig. 140). They consist of seven degrees of fineness, from the largest flake, called dai-ichi, to the finest, called saki, In general they are finer than hirame. The name nashiji comes from nashi, a small Japanese pear whose skin has somewhat the aspect of aventurine, and ji, which in Japanese means background. Gyobu nashiji is a kind of nashiji made from 34 parts gold to 35 parts silver. It is quite coarse and requires several coats of lacquer to cover it up sufficiently (Fig. 14).
The fourth group consists of foil (kana-gai) cut up into small squares or various-shaped rectangles of gold, koban, or silver which are inlaid next to one another according to the decorative pattern. They are made of four different thicknesses (Fig. 53).
The last group consists of scales of mother-of-pearl of different sizes as well as shell-scale powder called aogai-mijin (Fig. 77). These scales and powders usually come from the green-blue-reddish iridescent shell called aogai (see "Somada," page 127).
All of these various grades of metal and mother-of-pearl are used for composing either the pictorial design or the ornamental background, and the first three groups serve in making up the special ground called nashiji.
Classification of Techniques
The entire range and production of the materials used for lacquer work has been briefly outlined. The finished lacquer product consists essentially of three elements: 1) the background, 2) the pictorial design, and 3) the decorative designs (supplementing the pictorial design).
While the same materials and techniques may be used for all of these three elements, special technical effects have been developed peculiar to each element. Thus the pictorial design is often raised in relief by a special technique called takamakie which rarely applies to the background. Similarly, the background may be specifically made to simulate iron, a technique which is not usually practiced on the pictorial or decorative designs. On the other hand, pieces of cut foil or mother-of-pearl may be scattered in the background and also used for the pictorial and decorative designs. Similarly, in carved lacquer all of these three elements are involved in the same process. In general, however, while the pictorial and decorative processes make use of similar lacquer techniques, the methods used for background effect in lacquer ware as well as in metal art are. often unique.
For the most part, lacquer techniques are named according to the technique used (flat sown picture, lead-oxide painting, etc.), the name of the artist who originated the technique, or the original place of manufacture of a special technique. For example ji in Japanese means background and nashi is a type of Japanese pear. Nashiji, or "pear ground," is therefore a descriptive composite of both of these words referring to a ground appearing like the skin of this Japanese pear. Similarly, makie means sown or sprinkled picture, hira means flat, and taka means raised. Hiramakie therefore means "flat sown picture" or a flat lacquer design done by means of sprinkling colored and metallic powders. Takamakie is a similar technique in which the sown design is in raised relief. Me means aspect or eye and ishi means stone. Ishime is both a lacquer and a metal technique in which the ground is coarse-textured like a stone. Similarly, mokume means "wood eye" the appearance simulating the veins and knots of wood. Nuri means coating. Zonsei-nuri is a variety of carved lacquer whose coating is named after the lacquerer Zonsei. Wakasa-nuri is named after the province of Wakasa. Bori means carving or chiseling. Chinkin-bori literally means sunken gold carving.
Such classification, however, overlaps considerably and is therefore much too confusing. For practical purposes classification may be organized as follows: 1) background techniques, 2) makie (sown picture), 3) colored lacquer techniques, 4) lacquer painting, 5) carved lacquer, 6) imbedded lacquer, 7) encrusted lacquer, 8) lacquer imitating or enhancing natural and other materials, and 9) transparent lacquer.
It would be far too confusing to discuss all of the innumerable rare and relatively unimportant lacquer techniques, many of which have already been lost to posterity. From a practical point of view, therefore, only those techniques which are of popular or historical significance will be noted in any detail.
Background Techniques
The background may consist simply of a wooden base with the lacquer design applied directly, or in combination with various encrustations as practiced by the Ritsuo school. Ornamental woods or cherry bark were often so employed. Or the natural grain of the wood might be brought out by covering it with a type of transparent lacquer, often supplemented with colored lacquer designs. Special background techniques were also practiced, such as having the lacquer appear like metal, wood, or pottery. Such techniques are described separately later on in this chapter. Most commonly, the background consisted of a black, gold, or red lacquer. Occasionally other shades were used, including browns as employed by Shunsho and Zeshin. Light browns, including tan, are of relatively recent innovation. Quite often the black lacquer was enhanced with various types of metallic dusts, filings, or pieces of cut metal variously applied as to amount, type, and distribution according to specific techniques, such as nashiji, hirame, and kirigane. These techniques are described below.
NASHIJI (PEAR GROUND OR AVENTURINE)
The already prepared lacquer base (honji) is used, and upon it the nashiji flakes are dusted after a layer of ro-se-urushi has been applied. Subsequent drying, polishing, and relacquering are repeated. The final three lacquer coats are of Yoshino-urushi, a crude lacquer from Yoshino used for final coatings. The final effect is that of numerous flecks of gold buried at different depths in the transparent yellowish-brown lacquer. This stippled gold Venetian-glass effect is similar to that of the European aventurine lacquer. The range of color from gold to red or brown-red depends upon the depth of the individual gold flecks in the lacquer. Good quality is of even density and appears as if suspended in ice. In general, nashiji, especially the common variety, is used for the insides and bottoms of lacquer boxes without any superimposed designs (Fig. 140). In inro it is also used on the insides and risers of the cases. Gyobu nashiji is also used for inside decoration on inro. On the other hand, mura nashiji is used either as a background effect for the outside pictorial scene or by itself on the inside of lacquered boxes. Varieties of nashiji are also done with black or colored lacquer. The following are the numerous types of nashiji:
1) mura nashiji. The metallic powder forms irregular, more or less dense masses in cloudlike (mura) effects. Also known as uneven nashiji. There are several variations, including a similar irregular patchy effect called kasumi nashiji. Mura nashiji is more artistically effective when dispersed over larger surface areas but is also used in miniature lacquer (Frontispiece, Fig. 13).
2) kanoko nashiji. The metallic powder is dispersed in spots resembling the reddish spots on the back of a young deer (kanoko).
3) yasuriko nashiji. The metallic grains are quite large and very dense (yasuri=file, yasuriko=filings) and rolled fairly flat. When these heavy filings are strewn very sparingly, it is called usu-yasuriko nashiji (usu=thin, not densely spaced); If the background of yasuriko nashiji is gold (kinji) lacquer, it is also called ikakeji (poured-on ground).
4) gyobu nashiji. Invented by Gyobu Taro of Edo in the beginning of the 18th century. Consists of large irregular flakes of gold placed alongside of one another irregularly, forming a beautiful mosaic effect of gold. The technique was especially excellent on the inner surfaces of the inro made by the Kajikawa family (Fig. 14).
5) kin fundame (kin-fun, kin-pun). Very fine gold powder in black lacquer. Tundame (powder ground) consists of fine gold or silver powdered onto the ground or mixed with the lacquer and applied directly with the brush and worked to a soft, dull surface finish. Used as a ground for pictorial designs and also as a plain ground on insides of lacquered articles (Figs. 142, 223).
6) nashiji ishime. See page 130.
7) e-nashiji (picture nashiji). In this case the nashiji is used for the design rather than just for the background. Originated in the Momoyama period (Fig. 33).
8) heijin (even dust). Background of rough sprinkling of gold dust. Originated in the Heian period.
9) maki-bokashi (graduated sprinklings). Spreading metal powder more thinly in some places than in others. Originated in the Heian period.
10) ikakeji. Similar to the heijin method, but the gold powder is put on more densely. Originated in the Heian period.
11) chiriji. A variety of lacquer in which the background of a clear brown or black lacquer is powdered with fine gold or silver particles and enriched by scattering a few metallic particles. It is therefore a combination of nashiji and oki-hiram (Fig. 55).
12) tsuya-keshi (sheen extinguished). Dull finish, mostly in black, in which the polished lacquer is now purposely dulled by pounding with a hard brush filled with deerhorn powder. Other techniques of dull ground are fundame (powder ground), ishime-nuri, and sabiji (rust ground; Fig. 135). A slightly roughened lacquer surface is known as kodame chiriji. One beautiful, subtle style consists of delicate designs of dull black on a highly polished black ground. In general, dull grounds vary in degree of roughness from a smooth, flat mat to a coarse texture similar to the bark of a tree. Similarly, the dull lacquer may be in flat, medium, or high relief. It is most often done in black but also in brown tones and as gold or silver fundame. Zeshin's works quite often reveal grounds and also ornamental touches of such coarse texture, the latter usually in low relief. He was also fond of a flat, dull olive-gray ground (Figs. 11, 25).
HIRAME (FLAT EYE)
The two following techniques fall tinder this heading:
1) hirame or hirame nashiji. A lacquer technique employing the various irregular flat pieces of hirame as with nashiji. The particles are dusted into the wet lacquer surface and covered with transparent lacquer. Brilliant little metallic surface points are brought out by polishing. The particles of gold are larger than those used in nashiji. In general, this technique, in contrast to nashiji, is seen more frequently in the ground of older pieces (Fig. 51). Nashiji was more popular during the 19th century, at which time it was often of inferior quality.
2) oki-hirame. Relatively large, irregular, flat metallic (invariably gold) pieces are encrusted quite regularly next to one another, giving a rich gold mosaic pattern. This technique was used both on miniature and on larger pieces to produce a strong background effect for a simple central design (Figs. 45, 48, 101, 120, 139, 220). Rarely, the same technique is found using aogai (Fig. 15).
KANA-GAI (METALLIC FOIL)
In general, the metallic foil is slightly thicker than the usual gold leaf and is usually used flush with the ground or slightly elevated. Occasionally fairly heavy (thick) pieces are used to accentuate the design, such as indicating an object actually made out of gold rather than for purely ornamental purposes. The following techniques fall under this heading:
1) kirigane (cut metal). The metallic foil is cut into small various-sized squares or rectangles. These pieces are inlaid more or less irregularly side by side as a mosaic similar to that of oki-hirame or irregularly spaced according to their decorative use (Figs. 56, 57). They may be placed so that their dimensions gradually decrease. On old lacquer these squares of gold are mixed with squares of silver. Such metallic pieces are also often used in the design itself and are most frequently seen on rocks, on the heights of hills in a landscape, on clouds, on trunks of old trees, etc. (Figs, 53, 94). Kirigane is occasionally seen as a nashiji ground used mainly on sword hilts, where it is done in very narrow interspersed parallel rectangles. The technique of kirigane apparently dates from about the mid-14th century, and we know that it was frequently used by Koami Nagashige (Koami X) during the mid-17th century.
2) heidatsu and hyomon. Techniques of encrusted design using sheets of gold or silver foil. (See sections on imbedded and encrusted lacquer, pages 126, 127; see also Fig. 16.)
The Pictorial and Decorative Designs
The techniques of background decoration using metallic dustings have been described, as well as the various types of lacquer used for the basis. The methods of using and combining all of these materials into the final pictorial and decorative effects have already been classified. In general, the final design, no matter what technique is used, is either flat or raised to varying reliefs. Flat relief may be effected by level applications of lacquer for the design or by rubbing down, as in togidashi makie. Relief may be obtained by building up the design in lacquer or by means of encrustations or by carving out the lacquer (guri, tsuishu) or the wooden base itself (Kamakura-bori). Besides using varying degrees of relief, the design itself is brought out by employing numerous techniques, such as the following: 1) repeated metallic dustings, as in nashiji, 2) colored lacquers, 3) painting with lacquer solutions, 4) carving into the lacquer, 5) imbedding and encrusting various materials, and 6) combinations of these methods. Each of these techniques is to be described separately.
There are three different basic varieties of the makie, or "sown picture" technique: 1) togidashi, or rubbed lacquer, 2) hiramakie, or flat makie, and 3) takamakie, or makie in relief. These will be explained in detail below.
A second type of lacquer technique is accomplished by cutting the design into the lacquer. Examples are guri (crook ring), tsuishu (heap red), tsuikoku (heap black), and Zonsei.
A third type of lacquer is encrusted lacquer. In this technique the design consists entirely or in part of small or large precarved, relatively heavy pieces of various materials which are encrusted into the prepared lacquer. The material may consist of silver, gold, lead, pewter, metal alloys, mother-of-pearl, coral, ivory, faience, etc., and usually projects to varying heights beyond the level of the lacquer, but may also be imbedded level with the surface of the lacquer. This encrusted type of work was quite often done in conjunction with metal artisans and was also associated with such famous names as Korin, Ritsuo, Shibayama, and Somada.
There are dozens of other varieties of specific types of lacquer ware, some of which are variations of the techniques already mentioned.
Makie (Sown or Sprinkled Picture)
This technique consists essentially of building up the design by repeated alternating applications of thin coats of lacquer followed by metallic dustings and rubbings. The design is therefore gradually applied in layers by dusting rather than being painted on with lacquer. In this way delicate and graduated shadings and a sense of depth may be obtained even when the final surface is completely flat. Various degrees of relief may be obtained by this method by building up specific areas of the design with lacquer rather than applying the lacquer to the entire surface. As previously mentioned, there is no room for any errors in using this technique, since the dustings cannot be removed from the tacky lacquered surface. The artist must visualize in advance the exact order of his dustings, which will bring out the final desired pictorial effect. The art of makie is typically and basically of Japanese invention, dating back to the Nara period and ultimately brought to magnificent artistic and technical perfection which no country, including China, has ever been able to imitate successfully.
TOGIDASHI (POLISHING OUT)
The term literally means "to bring out by rubbing" (togu=ta rub, dasu=to bring out). The basis lacquer is prepared up to the first coating of ro-urushi. The design is drawn in ink on specially prepared paper and is traced with a rat's-hair brush on the opposite side of the paper with heated moist lacquer. The outlined lacquer design is now rubbed off onto the lacquered surface with a whalebone spatula. The lines are dusted with powdered white whetstone to improve the visibility of the outline, which is then powdered with metallic powders or pulverized colored lacquer before the piece is dried in the damp press. The outlines are now gone over with ro-se-urushi and dried, and the gilding or powdering process is repeated. Finally the entire surface is coated with ro-urushi, covering the entire design with this black lacquer. The surface is now ground down to the underlying gold (or other) design, and the process is repeated. By this method the design is brought out by the grinding down and has a softened effect at the edges, as in pastel work. The surface is now covered with clear lacquer (seshime-urushi) and the product finished as in the previously described honji method, the final effect being an absolutely even, polished surface.
In more modern manufacture the design is drawn directly on the object with white lead. Togidashi is a very old method and was used as early as 724. It is used in combination with raised lacquer for distant effects, including mists, clouds, and mountaintops; for softly sweeping and curving streams; for leaves fading into the distance, and the like. In some cases the nearer leaves are done in raised lacquer and the more distant ones in togidashi. A similar technique, indicating perspective, is used in the metal arts, combining medium and low relief. However, the same effect of perspective can be even more subtly obtained by using various shades and "faintness" of design by employing togidashi alone (Figs. 24, 67, 151). There are several varieties of togidashi:
1) iroe togidashi. This is done in gold, silver, and different-colored lacquers. The families of Shunsho and Shiomi Masanari were especially noted for this technique (Figs. 6, 68, 216).
2) sumie togidashi. Here the design is executed only in black lacquer powder, imitating sumie ink painting. All shades from black to light gray are obtained, simulating the various washes of sumie painting. The background is usually of plain gold or silver. Noted for this technique were Toyo, Hakuho, and Shoryusai (Figs. 20, 22, 209).
3) shishiai togidashi. This technique, combining relief makie and togidashi, was used in the Muromachi period to produce flattened, burnished relief and high relief.
HIRAMAKIE (FLAT SOWN PICTURE)
This is the name given to all gold lacquer which has a flat surface. The design itself is almost level with the background. The outline of the design is transferred to the prepared lacquer basis, as noted in togidashi. The spaces are filled in with shita-maki-urushi on which gold powder is dusted. The object is dried, and a layer of clear lacquer (Yoshino-urushi) is applied. After drying and polishing, details are drawn with a rat's-hair brush (neji-jude), using inside line lacquer (ke-uchi-urushi). After dusting with gold and drying, the cleat lacquer is again applied and dried and polished. Final marking and shading is now done with shading lacquer (jo-hana-urushi). In general, the effect in this flat lacquer is obtained through the repeated subtle graduated dustings. In hiramakie the outlines (and often the details) of the designs and the background motifs are not actually completely flat but are very slightly raised (Fig. 58).
TAKAMAKIE (LACQUER IN RELIEF, RAISED SOWN PICTURE)
This name identifies all raised gold lacquer, including dusting and inlaying of thin metal or mother-of-pearl flakes (including kirigane). Technically the term should be limited to raised lacquer done in makie, as the name implies. The technique originated at the end of the Kamakura period (about 1334) and was fully developed under the Ashikaga shogunate in the 15th century. In general, takamakie is used for near perspective, including figures, rocks, and trees. At times it reaches almost a sculptural quality, which of course also applies to high encrustations. As previously mentioned, "raising lacquer," which contains camphor, is used in order to produce slow and even drying. This prevents drying of the top layers first as well as subsequent cracking of the top layer.
The ground may be black or any colored lacquer, or of a lacquer imitating some other material, or nashiji, or plain wood or metal. The design is transferred from paper, as in all makie. A layer of shita-maki-urushi (undercoating lacquer) is applied to the portions to be raised as a basis for the raising process. Two layers of Yoshino-nobe-urushi are applied to the design:
1) For slight relief, taka-maki-urushi (raising lacquer) is used with fine brushes, dried, ground down, polished, and covered with seshime-urushi. The surface is now ready for gilding.
2) For high relief, the design is built up with several coats of sabi (clay and seshime-urushi) which are applied with the usual drying and grinding process and then coated with Yoshino-nobe-urushi. Then the stages listed above under "slight relief" are gone through before the surface is ready for gilding (Frontispiece).
3) In the gilding processes the kirigane is applied first upon a layer of ro-se-urushi, and then hirame or shell scales are applied separately with a pointed stick (hirame-fude). The parts to be gilded with gold dust are now coated with shita-maki-urushi (undercoating lacquer) and the powders applied with the tsutsu. Repeated dustings are done as necessary. The final details of the design are then done as in hiramakie after the application of shita-maki-urushi—namely, clear lacquer, inside line lacquer, dusting, shading lacquer, and finally finishing lacquer.
MISCELLANEOUS MAKIE TYPES
In addition to the three basic makie types described above, there are a number of variations. These are briefly explained here.
1) maki-abise. In this technique, which was used in the Momoyama period, gold dust was heavily heaped onto the raised design.
2) Higashiyama makie. Lacquer ware made in the late Muromachi period for Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimasa (1435-90).
3) jidai makie. Lacquer products of the Genroku era (1688-1704).
4) jokei-in makie. Lacquer ware of the Genroku era named after an appellation of Shogun Tokugawa Tsunayoshi (ruled 1680-1709).
5) joken-in makie. Ornamentation of different regular seedings in gold and silver of different tonalities, often found in picnic boxes (bento-bako) in which each compartment, tray, or sake bottle is decorated with a different geometrical design.
6) Kaga makie. Originated in the mid-17th century by the Igarashi family of lacquer artists, who moved from Kyoto to Kaga Province under the patronage of Lord Maeda Toshitsune.
7) kimetsuhe makie. Makie in relief decorated with patterns in gold or silver flakes. The pieces of cut metal flakes are fixed to the design with starch and therefore stand out in relief. The technique was used during the Momoyama period.
8) Kodai-ji makie. Lacquer work of the Momoyama period named after Hideyoshi's Kodai-ji temple in Kyoto, which was decorated with lacquer. A technique in which the leaves and stems of plants are outlined in gold lacquer surrounding a nashiji filling.
9) Koetsu makie, Korin makie, etc. Lacquer ware named after individual artists who introduced and popularized a specific lacquer technique.
10) maki-hanashi. A Momoyama-period technique in which the gold dustings were left as they were instead of being covered with lacquer and then polished.
Color Techniques
The various colors and pigments used in lacquer ware have already been noted. The pigments may be used either in coloring the lacquer or as pulverized powders; sometimes they are mixed with metallic powders for shading. When used for the production of colored lacquer, the pigments are mixed with suki-urushi, the finest crude transparent lacquer. Actually, pure colors are not seen because of the inherent amber hue of the lacquer itself. However, bright, pure colors are not approved of by the Japanese artisan, who prefers more toned-down, delicate, subtle shades. In general, the Chinese used a wider range of colors in their lacquer work, including white, turquoise, yellow, and different shades of green and red. The problem of vegetable colors being destroyed by the lacquer has already been noted. Vivid colors, such as sky blue and crimson, were not produced until the beginning of the 20th century.
