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1 1. Erwin Schrodinger. 1992. What is Life: The Physical Aspect of the Living Cell. New York: Cambridge University Press, p.5.

2 2. Schrodinger, 1992, p.6.

3 3. Schrodinger, 1992, p.3.

4 4. Schrodinger, 1992, p.5.

5 5. Horace Freeland Judson. 1996. The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, pp.29, 87–88; James D. Watson and Andrew Berry. 2003. DNA: The Secret of Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, pp. 35–36.

6 6. Stephen Jay Gould. 1995. “What is Life?” As a Problem in History,” What is Life? The Next Fifty Years: Speculations on the Future of Biology. Michael P. Murphy and Luke A.J. O’Neill, eds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.26.

7 7. Frederick Sanger. 1945. “The Free Amino Groups of Insulin,” Biochemical Journal 39: p.507.

8 8. Frederick Sanger. 2003. “What You Need to Know About … Phenylketonuria,” Nursing Times 99: p.26.

9 9. Frederick Sanger. 1959. “Chemistry of Insulin,” Science 129: oo.1340–1344; Frederick Sanger. 1988, “Sequences, Sequences, Sequences,” Annual Review of Biochemistry 57: pp.1–28.

10 10. Sanger, 1959, pp.1340–1344.

11 11. Judson, 1996, p.88.

12 12. Sanger, 1959, pp.1340–1344.

13 13. Alok Jha. 2013. “DNA Pioneer Frederick Sanger Dies Aged 95,” The Guardian (November 20): p.14.

14 14. Judson, 1996, pp.256–266.

15 15. Judson, 1996, p.470.

16 16. Michael Morange. 1988. A History of Molecular Biology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, p.135; Marshall W. Nirenberg and Johann H. Matthaei. 1961. “The Dependence of Cell‐Free Protein Synthesis in E. coli upon Naturally Occurring or Synthetic Polyribonucleotides,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 47: pp.1588–1602.

17 17. Judson, 1996, p.298.

18 18. Horace Freeland Judson. 1992. “A History of the Science and Technology Behind Gene Mapping and Sequencing,” in The Code of Codes: Scientific and Social Issues in the Human Genome Project. Daniel J. Kevles and Leroy Hood, eds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, p. 59.

19 19. Sydney Brenner, Francois Jacob, and Matthew Messelson. 1961. “An Unstable Intermediary Carrying Information from Genes to Ribosomes for Protein Synthesis,” Nature 190: pp.576–581; Francoise Jacob and Jacque Monod. 1961. “Genetic Regulatory Mechanisms in the Biosynthesis of Proteins,” Journal of Molecular Biology 3: pp.318–356.

20 20. Morange, 1998, p.22.

21 21. George W. Beadle. 1977. “Genes and Chemical Reactions in Neurospora,” in Nobel Lectures in Molecular Biology, 1933–1975. New York: Elsevier, pp. 51–63; Tonse N.K. Raju. 1999. “The Nobel Chronicles,” The Lancet 353: p.2082.

22 22. Arthur Kornberg. 1989. For the Love of Enzymes: The Odyssey of a Biochemist. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, p.121.

23 23. Kornberg, 1989, pp.147–154.

24 24. Morange, 1998, pp.236–237.

25 25. Kornberg, 1989, pp.217–220, 240–268.

26 26. Edward Southern. 1975. “Detection of Specific Sequences Among DNA Fragments Separated by Gel Electrophoresis,” Journal of Molecular Biology 98: pp.503–517.

27 27. David C. Darling and Paul M. Brickell. 1994. Nucleic Acid Blotting: The Basics. New York: Oxford University Press.

28 28. Stanley Cohen et al. 1973. “Constrcution of Biologically Functional Bacterial Plasmids in vitro,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 70: pp.3240–3244.

29 29. Eric Green. 2002. “Sequencing the Human Genome: Elucidating Our Genetic Blueprint,” in The Genomic Revolution: Unveiling the Unity of Life. Michael Yudell and Rob DeSalle eds. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press, p.39.

30 30. Robert Cook‐Deegan. 1994. The Gene Wars: Science, Politics, and the Human Genome. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, p. 62.

31 31. Kevin Davies. 2001. Cracking the Genome: Inside the Race to Unlock Human DNA. New York: The Free Press, p.37.

32 32. Frederick Sanger et al. 1977. “DNA Sequencing with Chain‐Terminating Inhibitors,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 74: pp.5463–5467.

33 33. Green, 2002, p.40; Sanger, 1988, pp.1–28.

34 34. Cook‐Deegan, 1994, p.62.

35 35. Morange, 1998, p.205.

36 36. International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium. 2001. “Initial Sequencing and Analysis of the Human Genome,” Nature 409: 860–921; J. Craig Venter et al. 2001. “The Sequence of the Human Genome,” Science 291: 1304–1351.

37 37. Kary Mullis. 1990. “The Unusual Origin of the Polymerase Chain Reaction,” Scientific American (April, 1990): pp.56–65.

38 38. Kary Mullis et al. 1986. “Specific Enzymatic Amplification of DNA in Vitro: The Polymerase Chain Reaction,” Cold Spring Harbor Symposium in Quantitative Biology 51: 263–273.

39 39. Paul Rainbow. 1996. Making PCR: A Story of Biotechnology. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, pp.128–129.