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1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 The fathers of evolution. (a) Charles Darwin. Detail from paintin...Figure 1.2 At a given temperature, tadpoles from higher latitudes developed ...Figure 1.3 Local adaptation of rare sapphire rockcress plants. When plants o...Figure 1.4 Meta‐analyses reveal generalities about local adaptation. R...Figure 1.5 The frequency of andromorphs of local damselfly populations in Ja...Figure 1.6 Contrasting ecotypes of the periwinkle Littorina saxatilis from S...Figure 1.7 The frequency of melanic forms of the peppered moth in western Br...Figure 1.8 The orthodox picture of ecological speciation. A uniform species ...Figure 1.9 Many different species of Darwin’s finches have evolved on the Ga...Figure 1.10 Closure of a ring distribution of bulbul morphotypes. (a) Distri...Figure 1.11 Sympatric speciation in the cichlid fish Amphilophus citrinellus...Figure 1.12 Sympatric speciation in Howea palms. Two species of Howea palm o...Figure 1.13 Biodiversity hot spots. Twenty‐five biodiversity hot spots ident...Figure 1.14 Continental drift means that continents that are now separate we...Figure 1.15 Parallel evolution of marsupial and placental mammals. The pairs...Figure 1.16 An evolutionary tree linking 93 species of picture‐winged Drosop...Figure 1.17 Contrasting changes in the distribution of spruce and oak specie...Figure 1.18 Contrasting changes between fossil and current distributions of ...Figure 1.19 Forest species richness is positively related to forest ‘stabili...Figure 1.20 A phylogenetic split bisecting insect and bird biotas into north...Figure 1.21 The invasion of Parthenium weed. This weed is invasive in the co...Figure 1.22 World distribution of the major biomes of vegetation.Figure 1.23 Biomes in relation to rainfall and temperature. The variety of e...Figure 1.24 Raunkiaer’s life forms. The drawings above depict the vari...Figure 1.25 Species traits in streams. Relationships between the representat...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Response curves illustrating the effects of a range of environmen...Figure 2.2 The ecological niche in one, two and three dimensions. (a) A nich...Figure 2.3 The use of ordination to facilitate understanding of the multidim...Figure 2.4 Ecological niche modelling. The first step is to characterise a s...Figure 2.5 Modelling the potential range of an invasive starfish. (a) Curren...Figure 2.6 Ordination contrasts the multidimensional niches of native and in...Figure 2.7 Location of fossil bones of the takahe in the South Island of New...Figure 2.8 Exponential effects of temperature on metabolic reactions. (a) Th...Figure 2.9 Effectively linear relationships between rates of growth and deve...Figure 2.10 The temperature–size rule (final size decreases with increasing ...Figure 2.11 The avenues of heat exchange between an ectotherm and its enviro...Figure 2.12 Examples of the thermoneutral zone. (a) Thermostatic heat produc...Figure 2.13 Acclimatisation involves conversion of glycogen to glycerol in a...Figure 2.14 Alfalfa can be selected for improved freezing tolerance. (a) Tol...Figure 2.15 The chilling tolerance of Miscanthus can be transferred to Sacch...Figure 2.16 Features of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the Nort...Figure 2.17 The abundance of three‐year‐old cod, Gadus morhua, in the Barent...Figure 2.18 The treelines (high‐altitude limits of forest cover) of the worl...Figure 2.19 Warm boundary limits of nine Australian fish species are correla...Figure 2.20 Geographic variation in thermal tolerances. (a) Terrestrial ecto...Figure 2.21 Niches of cover crops in terms of temperature and base water pot...Figure 2.22 Metabolic expenditure in relation to salinity for two shrimp spe...Figure 2.23 General zonation scheme for the seashore determined by relative ...Figure 2.24 Individuals of Platynympha longicaudata in a polluted site are m...Figure 2.25 Acid emissions have been decreasing in Europe since 1970 while t...Figure 2.26 Atmospheric concentrations of CO₂during the past 420 000 years a...Figure 2.27 Total annual anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from 1...Figure 2.28 Annual land and ocean surface temperature anomalies and sea‐leve...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Global map of the solar radiation absorbed annually in the earth–...Figure 3.2 Levels of solar radiation vary over time and space and with depth...Figure 3.3 The spectral distribution of radiation changes with depth as show...Figure 3.4 The response of photosynthesis to radiation intensity in various ...Figure 3.5 Bioengineering of photoprotection can improve crop plant performa...Figure 3.6 Variation in light quality in lakes can give rise to different co...Figure 3.7 The compensation point is higher in taller plants. (a) The declin...Figure 3.8 Photosynthetic capacity increases with leaf nitrogen content. The...Figure 3.9 Sun and shade leaves and plants vary in their capacities and comp...Figure 3.10 Variations in the behaviour and properties of sun and shade leav...Figure 3.11 Alternative strategies for combining photosynthesis and water co...Figure 3.12 Field capacity and the permanent wilting point in soil in relati...Figure 3.13 Roots as foragers. (a) The root system developed by a plant of w...Figure 3.14 The change in atmospheric CO₂concentration with height in a fore...Figure 3.15 Concentrations of CO₂vary, variably, with depth in Estonian lake...Figure 3.16 Aquatic plants may be limited in their photosynthetic ability by...Figure 3.17 Effects of temperature and precipitation on the proportional con...Figure 3.18 Agave species (CAM plants) exhibit high productivity due to thei...Figure 3.19 Bioengineering of a gene from cyanobacteria into soybean increas...Figure 3.20 Estimates of atmospheric CO₂concentrations over the past 600 mil...Figure 3.21 Photosynthetic activity is increased by enhanced CO₂concentratio...Figure 3.22 Stomatal conductance is decreased by enhanced CO₂concentrations,...Figure 3.23 Effects of elevated CO₂concentrations on C₃and C₄grasses are rev...Figure 3.24 Effects of CO₂enhancement on plant protein concentrations with p...Figure 3.25 Periodic table of the elements showing those that are essential ...Figure 3.26 The mineral compositions of different plants and plant parts are...Figure 3.27 Enrichment commonly leads to a switch from oxygen to (anaerobic)...Figure 3.28 Methane production increases when permafrost thaws, and its micr...Figure 3.29 The composition of various plant parts and of the bodies of anim...Figure 3.30 Resource‐dependent growth isoclines. Each of the growth is...Figure 3.31 Metabolic scaling: the relationship between metabolic rate (Y, w...Figure 3.32 Schematic representation of the two main approaches to the relat...Figure 3.33 Relationships between metabolic rate and body mass for heterotro...Figure 3.34 The allometric exponent of metabolism in plants decreases with p...

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Modular plants (left) and animals (right) show the underlying par...Figure 4.2 Compilation of patterns of mortality (survivorship) and reproduct...Figure 4.3 The growth of a genet reflects the births and deaths of its compo...Figure 4.4 Integration within a plant leads to a shifting balance of positiv...Figure 4.5 Indices of abundance can provide valuable information. The abunda...Figure 4.6 Schematic life histories for unitary organisms. (a) An outline li...Figure 4.7 The composition of seed banks can be very different from the vege...Figure 4.8 Dormancy in goldenrods is enforced by defoliation. The histories ...Figure 4.9 Derivation of cohort and static life tables. See text for details...Figure 4.10 Representations of the survival of a cohort of the yellow‐bellie...Figure 4.11 Classification of survivorship curves plotting log(l_x) against a...Figure 4.12 Distribution of the shapes of survivorship curves for 37 species...Figure 4.13 Static life tables can be informative, especially when alternati...Figure 4.14 Reconstructed static life table for the modules (tillers) of a C...Figure 4.15 Life cycle graphs and population projection matrices for two dif...Figure 4.16 Populations with constant rates of survival and fecundity eventu...Figure 4.17 Elements and outcome of an integral projection model (IPM) for f...Figure 4.18 Analyses of life table response experiments (LTREs) can guide cu...Figure 4.19 Elasticity analyses can guide the management of armadillo abunda...Figure 4.20 Elasticity analysis can guide the management of thistle abundanc...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 In exploitation competition, resource levels decline as populatio...Figure 5.2 Competition may combine elements of both exploitation and interfe...Figure 5.3 Density‐dependent mortality. (a) Upper panel: the density o...Figure 5.4 Density‐dependent fecundity. (a) The fecundity (seeds per p...Figure 5.5 Density‐dependent growth. The mean length of monarch butter...Figure 5.6 Plants sown at a range of densities often grow to achieve a const...Figure 5.7 The ‘constant final yield’ of plants illustrated by a line of slo...Figure 5.8 Intraspecific competition in plants often regulates the number of...Figure 5.9 Optimal sowing rates can conserve rare weedy plants without threa...Figure 5.10 When modular organisms compete, the modules closest to neighbour...Figure 5.11 The use of k values for describing patterns of density‐dependent...Figure 5.12 Density‐dependent birth and mortality rates lead to the regulati...Figure 5.13 Intraspecific competition typically generates n‐shaped net recru...Figure 5.14 Some dome‐shaped net‐recruitment curves. (a) Six‐mon...Figure 5.15 Real examples of S‐shaped population increase. (a) The bac...Figure 5.16 The global urban population has overtaken its rural counterpart ...Figure 5.17 The global human population grew slowly for millennia but has re...Figure 5.18 The birth and death rates in Europe since 1850. The annual net r...Figure 5.19 What happens to the global human population size depends on futu...Figure 5.20 Mathematical models of population increase. (a) In populations w...Figure 5.21 The intraspecific competition inherent in Equation 5.13. The fin...Figure 5.22 The intraspecific competition inherent in Equation 5.19. The fin...Figure 5.23 The range of population fluctuations generated by Equation5.19. ...Figure 5.24 Populations in stochastic models may have a high chance of going...Figure 5.25 Exponential (solid line) and sigmoidal (dashed line) increase in...Figure 5.26 Intraspecific competition increases the skewing in the distribut...Figure 5.27 Intraspecific competition increases the skewing in the distribut...Figure 5.28 Size inequalities first increase then decrease in competing popu...Figure 5.29 Root and shoot competition can have contrasting effects on mean ...Figure 5.30 Asymmetric competition enhances population size regulation in an...Figure 5.31 The number of (successful) territories may increase at higher re...Figure 5.32 Territory sizes occupied by male lions (Panthera leo) in Zimbabw...Figure 5.33 Older individuals hold the territories in a black kite populatio...Figure 5.34 ‘Dear enemy’ and ‘nasty neighbour’ effects....Figure 5.35 The importance of good territories for the conservation of beard...Figure 5.36 Crowded plant populations typically approach and then track self...Figure 5.37 Self‐thinning in a wide variety of herbs and trees. Each l...Figure 5.38 The species boundary line for populations of red pine,Pinus dens...Figure 5.39 Self‐thinning lines vary in their support for the metabolic theo...Figure 5.40 A density management diagram (DMD) for Norway spruce in central‐...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 The movements of locusts and their impending threat. An example f...Figure 6.2 Variation in physical and biotic variables in the Santuit River, ...Figure 6.3 The optimal location of nature reserves for giant pandas in China...Figure 6.4 The ‘seed rains’ of four tree species from a temperate rainforest...Figure 6.5 Predicting an outbreak of bluetongue virus. Results from the mode...Figure 6.6 Seed dispersal by frugivores can show a variety of patterns. The ...Figure 6.7 Birds and moths reflect contrasting combinations of active and pa...Figure 6.8 Phalanx‐type plants aggregate locally and co‐occur little with ot...Figure 6.9 Three generalised spatial patterns that may be exhibited by organ...Figure 6.10 The ‘grain’ of the environment must be seen from the perspective...Figure 6.11 Group living protects against predation in the chestnut‐crowned ...Figure 6.12 Inbreeding and outbreeding depression in Delphinium nelsonii. (a...Figure 6.13 Kin competition may drive offspring away from their natal habita...Figure 6.14 Density‐dependent emigration in spiders and mites. In labo...Figure 6.15 Plants staying at home in bad years and dispersing in good years...Figure 6.16 Dispersal polymorphisms. (a) The mean proportion (± SE) of winge...Figure 6.17 The proportion of male‐biased as opposed to female‐biased disper...Figure 6.18 The rapid spread of the western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgif...Figure 6.19 Dispersal drives the local distribution of a sand‐dune plant....Figure 6.20 Flying squirrels in Finland preferentially occupy habitat favour...Figure 6.21 The predictable dispersal of zebra mussels, invading the USA. (a...Figure 6.22 Invasion of the giant hogweed. The changing distribution over ti...Figure 6.23 Butterflies tend to occupy the largest, least isolated habitat p...Figure 6.24 Identifying priority North American butterfly species for conser...Figure 6.25 The spatial structure of a metapopulation affects its overall ab...Figure 6.26 Applications of species distribution modelling. (a) Ecological niche mo...Figure 6.27 Many subpopulations of a bee metapopulation go extinct from year...Figure 6.28 Mainland–island metapopulations of a butterfly with contrasting ...Figure 6.29 A plant metapopulation. (a) Locations of the subpopulations, on ...Figure 6.30 Hanski’s metapopulation of the Glanville fritillary. (a) M...Figure 6.31 Alternative stable states for the Glanville fritillary metapopul...Figure 6.32 Genetic effects on the dynamics of the Glanville fritillary meta...Figure 6.33 Contractions in the ranges of four bird species that have especi...Figure 6.34 The changing distribution of the giant panda in China that will ...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Studies of selection show a tendency for larger body size to be f...Figure 7.2 Allocations of dry matter and nitrogen to the parts of a plant va...Figure 7.3 Reproductive value generally rises and then falls with age. (a) T...Figure 7.4 Life history trade‐offs demonstrate the costs of reproduction....Figure 7.5 The ‘Y model’ of de Jong and van Noordwijk ( 1992). T...Figure 7.6 Snakes that produced larger litters also recovered quicker from r...Figure 7.7 A trade‐off between growth and survival in sticklebacks. Su...Figure 7.8 Trade‐offs between the number of offspring produced in a clutch b...Figure 7.9 Crop plant species differ in the relative responses of seed numbe...Figure 7.10 Options sets and fitness contours together determining optimal l...Figure 7.11 Optimal life histories in high and low cost of reproduction habi...Figure 7.12 Proposed and observed patterns in reproductive allocation as ind...Figure 7.13 Effects of predation risk on patterns of reproduction in killifi...Figure 7.14 The ‘degree’ of semelparity in the plant Lobelia inflata depends...Figure 7.15 The optimisation of offspring size and number in a clutch or lit...Figure 7.16 Guppies produce fewer, larger offspring in a more highly competi...Figure 7.17 The optimisation of offspring size and number in a clutch or lit...Figure 7.18 Recruitment from great tit, Parus major, nests is highest from n...Figure 7.19 Evidence for an intermediate, Lack clutch (litter) size in lynx,...Figure 7.20 Evidence for r‐ and K‐selection in dandelions. Resul...Figure 7.21 A fast–slow continuum explains life history variation in plants,...Figure 7.22 A fast–slow continuum explains life history variation in mammals...Figure 7.23 The fast–slow continuum can help guide conservation priorities i...Figure 7.24 Grime’s CSR triangle as an organising principle for plant life h...Figure 7.25 Grime’s CSR triangle and dark diversity as a guide to conserving...Figure 7.26 Allometric life history relationships, all plotted on log scales...Figure 7.27 Allometric relationships between total clutch volume and body vo...Figure 7.28 Phylogenetic comparative methods, taking account of shared ances...Figure 7.29 Allometry, phylogeny and the fast–slow continuum combine to make...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Competition between phytoplankton species for phosphorus: winners...Figure 8.2 In competition between grass species, the winner was the one that...Figure 8.3 When together, white‐spotted charr perform consistently better th...Figure 8.4 When two diatom species compete for two resources, each persists ...Figure 8.5 Warblers protected from interspecific competition fledge more you...Figure 8.6 Competition between unrelated species: sea urchins with fish, and...Figure 8.7 The paradox of the plankton. The influential dataset of planktoni...Figure 8.8 Allelopathy – and its price in terms of increased predation – bet...Figure 8.9 The zero isoclines generated by the Lotka–Volterra competition eq...Figure 8.10 The outcomes of competition generated by the Lotka–Volterra comp...Figure 8.11 The zero net growth isocline of a species potentially limited by...Figure 8.12 Competitive exclusion and coexistence in models with zero net gr...Figure 8.13 Coexistence of competitors sharing a resource is facilitated whe...Figure 8.14 Two species of rotifers competing for two species of alga coexis...Figure 8.15 Grasses exhibit a trade‐off between resource‐use effectiveness a...Figure 8.16 The diversity of competing phytoplankton species increases with ...Figure 8.17 Root and shoot competition between maize and pea plants. Above a...Figure 8.18 Competitor coexistence depends on both niche overlap and competi...Figure 8.19 Resource utilisation curves for three species coexisting along a...Figure 8.20 The effect of niche similarity on competitor coexistence. The ra...Figure 8.21 Ant species in Kenya vary greatly in their colonisation ability,...Figure 8.22 Competitive outcome determined by a priority effect. Survival ti...Figure 8.23 Diatom species coexist as a result of fluctuations in their envi...Figure 8.24 Coexistence of four marine invertebrate species is enhanced by a...Figure 8.25 Coexistence of plant species in agri‐environment schemes is enha...Figure 8.26 Environmental heterogeneity can enhance the coexistence of compe...Figure 8.27 In terms of the signs of their interactions, competition and app...Figure 8.28 Evidence for apparent competition for predator‐free space at San...Figure 8.29 Apparent competition from beachgrass threatens lupine conservati...Figure 8.30 Red squirrel populations are threatened by squirrelpox (SQPx) vi...Figure 8.31 A substitutive experiment on interspecific competition between P...Figure 8.32 A substitutive design demonstrates competition among microbes in...Figure 8.33 An additive design demonstrates little effect of other species o...Figure 8.34 Response surface analysis demonstrates the effects of intercropp...Figure 8.35 The diets of ocelots demonstrate competitive release in the abse...Figure 8.36 Character displacement in the canine teeth of Indian mongooses. ...Figure 8.37 Apparent character displacement in the body size of mud snails a...Figure 8.38 An experimental manipulation demonstrates evolution in clover in...Figure 8.39 Experimental evolution of niche differentiation in Pseudomonas. ...Figure 8.40 Experimental evolution of competitive ability in a protozoan. Wh...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Coupled oscillations in the abundance of predators and prey. (a) ...Figure 9.2 Predators tend to prefer more profitable food types but may modif...Figure 9.3 Switching of preferences by predators depends on the relative abu...Figure 9.4 Studies of optimal diet choice showing a clear but limited corres...Figure 9.5 The foraging behaviour of bluegill sunfish changes in the presenc...Figure 9.6 The phylogenies of Peruvian Lepidoptera map badly onto the phylog...Figure 9.7 Demonstrable costs of plant defence against herbivores. (a) Diffe...Figure 9.8 A meta‐analysis of studies of the frequency of production of qual...Figure 9.9 Passionfruit investment in extrafloral nectaries is increased by ...Figure 9.10 Limited support for the cross‐talk hypothesis between JA‐ and SA...Figure 9.11 Root and shoot herbivory inducing different patterns of root and...Figure 9.12 Snails induce a defensive response in seaweeds that protects the...Figure 9.13 Responses to herbivory (but not simulated herbivory) reduced sub...Figure 9.14 Landraces of maize frequently make an inducible defence response...Figure 9.15 Constitutive levels of defence were high in valuable wild radish...Figure 9.16 Maximum levels of defence at intermediate rates of fertiliser ap...Figure 9.17 Bark beetles prefer non‐stressed pine seedlings but the stressed...Figure 9.18 Silicate supplementation can help ameliorate the harmful effects...Figure 9.19 Rapid compensatory regrowth of an invasive seaweed following her...Figure 9.20 Herbivory affects the outcome of competition between two plant s...Figure 9.21 Drastic effects of repeated defoliation. The effects of the freq...Figure 9.22 An aphid pest’s development is speeded up, and its efficiency in...Figure 9.23 Plant fecundity can be affected by herbivory even when there is ...Figure 9.24 The importance of the timing of herbivory. (a) Clipping of field...Figure 9.25 Some meta‐analyses of herbivory. (a) The effects of sap fe...Figure 9.26 Mimicry in butterflies. (a) Larva of the monarch butterfly, Dana...Figure 9.27 Chemical defence in a sponge. Results of field assays assessing ...Figure 9.28 Snail shell architecture varies with predation risk. Three‐dimen...Figure 9.29 The effects of predation may vary with food availability. Trajec...Figure 9.30 Goshawks preying on owls mostly take those least likely to contr...Figure 9.31 Predators have more effect on the fecundity of ground squirrels ...

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 The Lotka–Volterra predator–prey model. (a) The prey...Figure 10.2 Delayed density dependence. (a) A parasitoid–host model followed...Figure 10.3 A type 1 functional response, illustrated for Azteca sericeasur ...Figure 10.4 Type 2 functional responses. (a) Tenth‐instar damselfly nymphs (Figure 10.5 Type 3 (sigmoidal) functional responses. (a) The paper wasp, Pol...Figure 10.6 Masting in grasses and its negative effect on predation. (a) The...Figure 10.7 Periodical cicadas satiate their predators and so avoid high rat...Figure 10.8 The composition of the food of cotton rats, Sigmodon hispidus, i...Figure 10.9 Mutual interference leads to a reduction in predation rates with...Figure 10.10 Prey and predator zero isoclines that incorporate crowding, and...Figure 10.11 Prey and predator zero isoclines that incorporate a type 3 func...Figure 10.12 Population fluctuations of both moths and voles are more pronou...Figure 10.13 Possible effects of a ‘humped’ prey isocline, either as a resul...Figure 10.14 Schematic model of the role of non‐consumptive effects in preda...Figure 10.15 Aggregative responses of predators and parasitoids. (a) Black‐t...Figure 10.16 The behaviour of caddis fly larvae leads to their aggregation i...Figure 10.17 The marginal value theorem. (a) When a forager enters a patch, ...Figure 10.18 Experiments with parasitoids provide qualified support for the ...Figure 10.19 Optimal foraging by penguins feeding on patches of krill provid...Figure 10.20 Patterns of plant root growth provide support for the marginal ...Figure 10.21 The use of patches differing in resource richness by mice is mo...Figure 10.22 Layout of a foraging experiment with chacma baboons. Two separa...Figure 10.23 Ducks provide support for the ideal free distribution. (a) When...Figure 10.24 The effect of the interference coefficient, m, on the expected ...Figure 10.25 The aggregative responses of parasitoids and the aggregation of...Figure 10.26 A metapopulation structure increases the persistence of predato...Figure 10.27 A metapopulation structure increases the persistence of predato...Figure 10.28 The stability (persistence) of a ciliate predator–prey metapopu...Figure 10.29 The complex interactions between density‐dependence, aggregatio...

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Zonation of microbial communities in marine sediment habitats. S...Figure 11.2 Changes in the chemical composition of oak leaf litter and its a...Figure 11.3 Size classification by body width of organisms in terrestrial de...Figure 11.4 The positive effects of earthworms on crop yields. Results of a ...Figure 11.5 Examples of the various categories of invertebrate consumer in f...Figure 11.6 A general model of energy flow in a stream. A fraction of coarse...Figure 11.7 Comparing the biomasses of decomposers and detritivores during t...Figure 11.8 Relative roles of decomposers and detritivores in decomposition ...Figure 11.9 Boring insects facilitate fungal decomposers of wood. Relationsh...Figure 11.10 Leaf decomposition compared in different biomes. Average decomp...Figure 11.11 Distribution of climatic regions where soil animals can be expe...Figure 11.12 Decomposition rates vary with habitat type and detrital nutrien...Figure 11.13 The range of mechanisms that detritivores adopt for digesting c...Figure 11.14 Isopods enhance the decomposition of both leaf litter and the f...Figure 11.15 The action of flies and particularly dung beetles accelerates d...Figure 11.16 Release locations in Australia for five species of dung beetle ...Figure 11.17 Growth curves for the forensically important holarctic blowfly ...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 A range of parasites. (a) Plasmodium falciparum in a human blood...Figure 12.2 Aggregated distributions of parasite numbers per host. (a) Crayf...Figure 12.3 Many parasites are specialists, often attacking just one host sp...Figure 12.4 Patterns in the effect of transmission strategy on host specific...Figure 12.5 Parasites within hosts: simultaneously both predator and prey. A...Figure 12.6 Trade‐offs reveal the costs of defending against parasites....Figure 12.7 Th1 and Th2 trade‐offs in buffalo. (a) A negative correlat...Figure 12.8 Contrasting effects at the individual and population level of tr...Figure 12.9 Resistance, tolerance and virulence, showing the effects of para...Figure 12.10 Argentinian bird host species show contrasting combinations of ...Figure 12.11 Density‐dependent responses of parasites within their hosts....Figure 12.12 Host immune responses are necessary for density dependence in i...Figure 12.13 Competition between two worm species for a fruit‐fly host....Figure 12.14 Effects on microparasites of helminth coinfection in mice. The ...Figure 12.15 Positive and negative effects of coinfection in field voles. Th...Figure 12.16 The myxoma virus in European rabbits evolved from high to inter...Figure 12.17 Coevolution leading to rust fungus pathogens being more virulen...Figure 12.18 Antagonistic coevolution of the bacterial host, Pseudomonas flu...Figure 12.19 Transmission of cowpox virus in field voles was neither density...Figure 12.20 Local transmission of damping off disease in radishes leads to ...Figure 12.21 Superspreading events during outbreaks of six human diseases, a...Figure 12.22 The spread of damping off among radish plants is slowed down by...Figure 12.23 A dilution effect for the Lyme disease pathogen – or is it?...Figure 12.24 Harmful effects of fly larva parasitism on the medium ground fi...Figure 12.25 The effect of dodder, Cuscuta salina, on competition between Sa...Figure 12.26 Epidemic curves for Ebola virus disease. (a) Epidemic curves in...Figure 12.27 Cycles in the incidence of human infections. (a) Reported cases...Figure 12.28 Diseases with a greater R₀require greater vaccination coverage....Figure 12.29 S‐shaped curves of the progress of diseases through crops from ...Figure 12.30 The spread of phocine distemper virus epidemics. (a) The spread...Figure 12.31 The spread of Dutch elm disease in North America from its intro...Figure 12.32 A protozoan parasite reduces the abundance of a beetle. Depress...Figure 12.33 Anther smut has a negative effect on the population growth rate...Figure 12.34 A nematode has detrimental effects on the survival and fecundit...Figure 12.35 Treatment against its nematode parasite reduces the amplitude o...Figure 12.36 Food and parasites combine to determine the abundance of white‐...

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Plant interactions shift from competitive to facilitative in mor...Figure 13.2 Cleaner fish really do clean their clients. The mean number of g...Figure 13.3 ‘Cleaner' worms benefit large but not small crayfish, which groo...Figure 13.4 Ants provide their host plants with significant protection again...Figure 13.5 Ant species may compete in a competitive hierarchy for access to...Figure 13.6 Aphid colonies survive longer when attended by ants but only if ...Figure 13.7 When scale insect density is high, ants benefit coffee plants by...Figure 13.8 Life cycle of Maculinea arion. Adult butterflies oviposit on Thy...Figure 13.9 Evolutionary origins of five categories of fungus farming by ant...Figure 13.10 Restoration of vegetation increases the number of pollinator sp...Figure 13.11 The digestive tracts of herbivorous mammals are commonly modifi...Figure 13.12 Alterations in host characteristics associated with changes to ...Figure 13.13 Examples of insect guts showing the localisation of gut bacteri...Figure 13.14 Each of several insect groups has evolved an obligatory relatio...Figure 13.15 Three strategies for novel insect pest control. Each is based o...Figure 13.16 The coral microbiome, consisting of algal and bacterial symbion...Figure 13.17 There is a clear separation of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal st...Figure 13.18 Plants will often be connected to each other by mycorrhizal net...Figure 13.19 Contrasting shapes of lichen thalli. (a) Coral‐like fruticose (...Figure 13.20 Phylogenetic affinities of nitrogen‐fixing bacteria and archaea...Figure 13.21 Development of the root nodule. Structural changes during the c...Figure 13.22 To prevent cheating by rhizobia, the soybean plant applies sanc...Figure 13.23 Relative importance of rhizobia and nitrogen fertiliser in the ...Figure 13.24 A model of bee–plant mutualisms is intrinsically unstable unles...

14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Population time series showing a range of patterns of abundance.Figure 14.2 Density‐dependent and ‐independent processes combine to determin...Figure 14.3 Key factor analysis of the sand dune annual plant Androsace sept...Figure 14.4 Increases in annual population growth rate (r = ln λ) with the a...Figure 14.5 Larch budmoth time series and their analysis through correlation...Figure 14.6 Analysis of microtine rodent population time series summarised a...Figure 14.7 The food web around the snowshoe hare. The major components of t...Figure 14.8 Analysis of flixweed and wasp population time series using corre...Figure 14.9 Analysis of population time series of kangaroo rats using linear...Figure 14.10 The two ‘competing’ theories for the generation of population c...Figure 14.11 Hare and lynx cycles. Regular cycles in the abundance of the sn...Figure 14.12 Survival and reproduction of the cyclic snowshoe hare. (a) Annu...Figure 14.13 The effects of stress hormones in the cyclic snowshoe hare. (a)...Figure 14.14 Analyses of model and microtine time series are consistent with...Figure 14.15 Effects of predation, dispersal and sociality on the dynamics o...Figure 14.16 A predator–prey zero isocline model with multiple equilibria....Figure 14.17 Possible examples of outbreaks and multiple equilibria. (a) The...

15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Uncontrolled pests typically exceed their economic injury level:...Figure 15.2 Pesticides can lead to target pest resurgence and secondary pest...Figure 15.3 The threat to skylark populations from GM sugar beet is greatest...Figure 15.4 There has been a steady rise, for more than half a century, in t...Figure 15.5 Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) use and resistance to it have both r...Figure 15.6 Decision support systems allow flexible implementation of integr...Figure 15.7 Integrated farming systems and even fully organic farming can be...Figure 15.8 Fixed quota harvesting can achieve a maximum sustainable yield (...Figure 15.9 The Peruvian anchoveta fishery collapsed in 1972 as a result of ...Figure 15.10 Fixed effort harvesting can deliver a stable maximum sustainabl...Figure 15.11 The discrepancy between official data from vessels with monitor...Figure 15.12 Density compensation following fixed proportional harvesting in...Figure 15.13 The economically optimum yield (EOY) is often lower than the ma...Figure 15.14 Profit sharing in the harvesting of teak can be adjusted so as ...Figure 15.15 Harvesting operations may have multiple equilibria. (a) When re...Figure 15.16 Depensation effects led to the sudden collapse and slow recover...Figure 15.17 The dynamic pool approach to fishery harvesting and management,...Figure 15.18 Peak (optimal) fishery yields around China are obtained at inte...Figure 15.19 Reducing mesh size to allow smaller North Sea cod to escape lea...Figure 15.20 The mean trophic level (MTL) of fisheries catches have appeared...Figure 15.21 Mean trophic level (MTL) in catches shows a variety of trends i...Figure 15.22 Freshwater fish in North America and amphibians worldwide illus...Figure 15.23 Most of the estimated 10 million‐plus species of eukaryotes rem...Figure 15.24 The categorisation of a species’ risk of extinction changes as ...Figure 15.25 Populations of Finnish butterflies are more likely to go extinc...Figure 15.26 Highly inbred pink pigeons from Mauritius have significantly re...Figure 15.27 Population density and habitat range are the most powerful pred...Figure 15.28 Loss of elephants to ivory poachers can be successfully resiste...Figure 15.29 Forest cover is being lost throughout the world and from all bi...Figure 15.30 Even with conservative predictions, many Australian butterfly s...Figure 15.31 Invasive species are the second greatest threat to bird species...Figure 15.32 Chytrid disease in amphibians spread through Central America fr...Figure 15.33 The extinction vortex in principle and in action in Swedish sou...Figure 15.34 Few pollinators, no bird pollinators and low recruitment of new...Figure 15.35 Persistence times of different‐sized bighorn sheep populations ...Figure 15.36 Populations of Silene regia not managed by burning are most lik...Figure 15.37 The VORTEX model correctly predicts declining and stable popula...Figure 15.38 Optimal strategies for conserving an emu‐wren metapopulation de...Figure 15.39 Large areas in the east of Midwestern USA are likely to be occu...Figure 15.40 Strategic dropping of patches from or adding of patches to a ne...Figure 15.41 New building can be discouraged in habitats where the flow of s...Figure 15.42 Conservation decisions are often taken, ultimately, as the end ...Figure 15.43 A decision tree for the management of the Sumatran rhinoceros g...

16 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 Selected community modules. In all cases arrows indicate the eff...Figure 16.2 Interspecific competition (d < 0) affects phytophagous insects i...Figure 16.3 Niche complementarity in anemone fish is apparent both in terms ...Figure 16.4 Niche complementarity in Macaranga trees in Borneo. (a) Percenta...Figure 16.5 Niche complementarity in tundra plants. Mean uptake of available...Figure 16.6 Null modelling supports a role for competition in structuring li...Figure 16.7 Neutral models are better than niche‐based models in their abili...Figure 16.8 Community‐wide character displacement in barnacles: leg le...Figure 16.9 Checkerboard distribution of two small Macropygia cuckoo‐dove sp...Figure 16.10 The distributions of species pairs are often negatively associa...Figure 16.11 Shared‐predator community modules with varying interaction stre...Figure 16.12 Predicted extinction times for the medium ground finch on Santa...Figure 16.13 Plant species richness is highest at intermediate levels of gra...Figure 16.14 Grazing reduces species richness in nutrient‐poor ecosystems bu...Figure 16.15 Grazing increases species richness in high‐productivity sites b...Figure 16.16 A meta‐analysis of studies testing the Janzen–Connell hypothesi...Figure 16.17 Lizards reduce species richness of spiders by preying on rare s...Figure 16.18 Support for the stress‐gradient hypothesis. (a) Left: var...Figure 16.19 The effects of species interactions in structuring a plant comm...

17 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 A trophic cascade in an intertidal community. When birds are exc...Figure 17.2 Trophic cascades in four‐level food chains – which may sometimes...Figure 17.3 A rare trophic cascade extending beyond four levels to nitrate u...Figure 17.4 Mesopredator release (of foxes and cats by removing dingoes) thr...Figure 17.5 Bottom‐up control of a food web in Brazil. The responses o...Figure 17.6 Meta‐analyses of manipulation studies of top‐down and bottom‐up ...Figure 17.7 The community module underlying the apparent trophic cascade hyp...Figure 17.8 A test supporting the Apparent Trophic Cascade Hypothesis. (a–e)...Figure 17.9 The keystone status of sea otters along the Pacific coast of Nor...Figure 17.10 Humans are hyper‐keystone species in the Pacific north‐west of ...Figure 17.11 Effect of species richness on the temporal variability of popul...Figure 17.12 Species richness stabilises grassland productivity through over...Figure 17.13 The stability of salmon catch biomass in Canada is greater when...Figure 17.14 Robustness increases with connectance following simulated extin...Figure 17.15 Population stability shows no or a positive correlation with sp...Figure 17.16 Compartmentalisation stabilises food webs. (a) Potential effect...Figure 17.17 Separate compartments in a Caribbean marine food web arise beca...Figure 17.18 Weak links in long trophic loops stabilise food webs. (a) Loops...Figure 17.19 The calculation of food chain length. Food web of an exposed in...Figure 17.20 Adaptive foraging shortens food chain length in a simulation mo...Figure 17.21 Food chains are longer when productivity is higher in simple ar...Figure 17.22 A meta‐analysis supports the importance of productive space and...Figure 17.23 Food chain length in the Bahamas increases with ecosystem size ...Figure 17.24 Parasites decrease the robustness of food webs (slightly). Food...Figure 17.25 Figurative representation of a stability landscape giving rise ...Figure 17.26 Evidence for regime shifts in the states of aquatic communities...Figure 17.27 Slow regime shifts in the Caribbean from coral‐dominated to cor...Figure 17.28 Distribution of permafrost at high northern latitudes and the a...

18 Chapter 18Figure 18.1 The relationships among four types of species pools and four cla...Figure 18.2 A community can be defined at any scale. We can identify a hiera...Figure 18.3 The relationship between species richness and the number of indi...Figure 18.4 Species diversity (H) and equitability (J) decline progressively...Figure 18.5 Rank–abundance patterns of various models. (a) GS, geometr...Figure 18.6 Multimodal, monomodal and monotonic size spectra. (a) The multim...Figure 18.7 Under environmental pressures size spectra become steeper. Under...Figure 18.8 Three contrasting descriptions of distributions of the character...Figure 18.9 Examples of ordination of community composition. (a) Results of ...Figure 18.10 Distribution of sampling sites on lava flows of different ages ...Figure 18.11 Later successional species are capable of germinating in young ...Figure 18.12 Successional patterns in an arable grassland chronosequence. (a...Figure 18.13 Predicted changes in relative abundance of forest trees in Puer...Figure 18.14 Example of a successional niche – early conditions suit early s...Figure 18.15 Nurse plants facilitate seedling survival in forest restorationFigure 18.16 Protection from browsing mammals by a tree guard increased thic...Figure 18.17 Support for the intermediate disturbance hypothesis. Relationsh...Figure 18.18 Colonisation patterns in patches of different size and shape. (...Figure 18.19 Frequency distribution of gaps created by lightning in a tropic...Figure 18.20 Butterflies profit from overstory reduction and slash mulching.Figure 18.21 Three‐dimensional classification of four paradigms of metacommu...Figure 18.22 Illustration of a competition–colonisation trade‐off....Figure 18.23 Dispersal rate affects species richness in a metacommunity. (a)...

19 Chapter 19Figure 19.1 Biodiversity has declined despite an increase in protected areas...Figure 19.2 Rarefaction and extrapolation as ways of estimating species rich...Figure 19.3 A simple model of species richness. Each species utilises a port...Figure 19.4 Species richness increases with productivity in fish, ants and r...Figure 19.5 Species richness decreases with productivity in British plants. ...Figure 19.6 Butterfly densities are highest on nature reserves, but higher o...Figure 19.7 Humped relationships between species richness and productivity. ...Figure 19.8 Studies of richness–productivity relationships show a range of o...Figure 19.9 Diversity–productivity relationships for aquatic communities cha...Figure 19.10 At broad scales, species richness increases with environmental ...Figure 19.11 Species richness increases with both productivity and energy in...Figure 19.12 Species richness increases with the spatial or structural heter...Figure 19.13 Species richness is lower in ‘harsher’ (lower pH) environments....Figure 19.14 Species–area relationships showing species richness increasing ...Figure 19.15 MacArthur and Wilson’s ( 1967) Equilibrium Theory of Isla...Figure 19.16 Increases of species richness with area are sometimes related t...Figure 19.17 An artificial reduction in island area (but not habitat diversi...Figure 19.18 The intercepts of species–area relationships are typically lowe...Figure 19.19 Species richness tends to decrease on islands the more isolated...Figure 19.20 Islands may lack species because they have not had time to colo...Figure 19.21 A constancy of species richness may hide a turnover of individu...Figure 19.22 Island turnover is dominated by rare species at short timescale...Figure 19.23 The proportion of specialist species is low on small islands, r...Figure 19.24 The proportion of endemics on an island increases with island i...Figure 19.25 Graphical summary of the general dynamic model of ocean island ...Figure 19.26 Speciation rates first rise then decline as islands emerge and ...Figure 19.27 A simple recipe for species conservation. Arrows from A to B si...Figure 19.28 Species richness increases with habitat connectivity, habitat a...Figure 19.29 A single large site in Finland supports fewer plant species tha...Figure 19.30 Species richness is higher nearer to the equator (and lower nea...Figure 19.31 Mammal and amphibian species richness is better predicted by th...Figure 19.32 New species of woody flowering plants predominantly remain in t...Figure 19.33 Species richness may decrease, increase or show a hump‐shaped r...Figure 19.34 Mid‐elevation peaks in species richness of geometrid moths are ...Figure 19.35 Brittle stars in shallow seas show peak richness near the equat...Figure 19.36 Marine‐protected areas in coral reef regions. These have ...Figure 19.37 Animal species richness tends to increase during successions, t...Figure 19.38 Protected areas are concentrated more in the ‘rich world’, espe...Figure 19.39 Just six areas in Western Australia would conserve 95% of the f...Figure 19.40 An example of irreplaceability analysis. Map of South Africa’s ...Figure 19.41 Developing a multipurpose zoning plan for the Asinara Island Na...Figure 19.42 Spatial planning for a network of green infrastructure in the C...

20 Chapter 20Figure 20.1 Annual average rates of net primary productivity across the plan...Figure 20.2 Patterns in the human appropriation of net primary production (H...Figure 20.3 Global patterns in forest and ocean net primary production (NPP)...Figure 20.4 Temporal patterns in primary production. (a) Interannual variati...Figure 20.5 Contrasting sources of organic matter in aquatic communities. Va...Figure 20.6 NPP in relation to biomass. The relationship between average net...Figure 20.7 Patterns in photosynthetic efficiency in contrasting terrestrial...Figure 20.8 Net primary production (NPP) tends to increase with both precipi...Figure 20.9 The relationships between NPP, precipitation and temperature in ...Figure 20.10 Net primary production (NPP) in broadleaf forests tends to incr...Figure 20.11 Length of growing season in relation to precipitation and tempe...Figure 20.12 Predicted regions of the earth where terrestrial net primary pr...Figure 20.13 Primary production tends to increase with both species and func...Figure 20.14 Increased yield with species richness in grassland experiments ...Figure 20.15 Comparing richness‐based and human perturbation effects on biom...Figure 20.16 Relationship between primary production, photosynthetically act...Figure 20.17 Relationship between gross primary productivity (GPP) and ecosy...Figure 20.18 Net primary production (NPP) in relation to temperature and pho...Figure 20.19 Gross primary production (GPP) declines with ocean depth. (a) T...Figure 20.20 Examples of vertical chlorophyll profiles recorded in the ocean...Figure 20.21 Secondary productivity depends on primary productivity. (a) Sea...Figure 20.22 Relationships between herbivore consumption and primary product...Figure 20.23 Patterns in energy flow. (a) Energy flow through a trophic comp...Figure 20.24 The percentage of net primary production (NPP) consumed by herb...Figure 20.25 Frequency distribution of trophic‐level transfer efficiencies i...Figure 20.26 General patterns of energy flow. Energy flow for (a) a forest, ...Figure 20.27 Patterns in the fate of NPP. Box plots showing for a range of e...Figure 20.28 Temporal patterns in ecosystem energetics. Monthly mean values ...Figure 20.29 Galápagos caterpillars are more abundant in wet years. Ann...

21 Chapter 21Figure 21.1 The relationship between energy flow and nutrient flux. Nutrient...Figure 21.2 Components of the nutrient budgets of a terrestrial and an aquat...Figure 21.3 A model of phosphorus (P) dynamics during primary succession. Th...Figure 21.4 Global distribution of eutrophication‐related coastal dead zones...Figure 21.5 Simulated global map of total phosphorus from the atmosphere. No...Figure 21.6 Wetfall and dryfall along a rainfall gradient. Annual atmospheri...Figure 21.7 A simplified model of nitrogen transformations in ecosystems. Li...Figure 21.8 Annual carbon budgets for an old and a young ponderosa pine fore...Figure 21.9 Concentrations of ions in streamwater from the experimentally de...Figure 21.10 Nutrient spiralling in a river channel and adjacent wetland are...Figure 21.11 The position of a lake with respect to other water bodies in th...Figure 21.12 Nitrogen flux in an estuary. Conceptual model of nitrogen (N) f...Figure 21.13 The export to river mouths of nitrogen increases with human pop...Figure 21.14 The effect of river damming on silicate concentration at the ri...Figure 21.15 Contours of nitrate concentration during upwelling events along...Figure 21.16 Source of catchment inputs of nitrogen (N) to the Baltic Sea ac...Figure 21.17 Biologically mediated transformations of carbon in the open oce...Figure 21.18 Patterns in (a) chlorophyll a and (b) silicate and nitrate conc...Figure 21.19 Adding dissolved iron to the ocean leads to dramatic increases ...Figure 21.20 The hydrological cycle. Fluxes are shown as arrows (× 10⁶ km³ y...Figure 21.21 A process‐based ecosystem model for the Hubbard Brook forest....Figure 21.22 Projected effects of climate change in different forests. The r...Figure 21.23 Global cycles of (a) phosphorus, (b) nitrogen and (c) sulphur. ...Figure 21.24 The global carbon cycle. Major pools are shown in boxes (Pg C) ...Figure 21.25 Concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Ob...Figure 21.26 The global fluxes of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere (sources)...

22 Chapter 22Figure 22.1 The last 541 million years of the Earth's geological history....Figure 22.2 Indexes of change in population size (standardised at 1.0 for th...Figure 22.3 Global patterns of terrestrial vertebrate species richness and l...Figure 22.4 Projected carbon dioxide emissions and surface temperature for f...Figure 22.5 Annual mean change in (a) surface temperature and (b) precipitat...Figure 22.6 Tree species vulnerability to projected climate warming. (a) Ran...Figure 22.7 Loss of circumboreal forest to wildfire. (a) Distribution of the...Figure 22.8 Projected mismatches between migratory birds’ arrival time and t...Figure 22.9 Distributional shifts to newly appropriate climatic zones may be...Figure 22.10 Ocean warming, body size and viability of an important fishery.Figure 22.11 Current and projected distributions of 10 biomes and three anth...Figure 22.12 Acid rain declining in Europe and North America but increasing ...Figure 22.13 Projected global pattern of ocean acidification in relation to ...Figure 22.14 Effects of ocean acidification on different trophic levels. Eff...Figure 22.15 Individual and combined effects of land‐use change and climate ...Figure 22.16 Frequency distributions of wildlife abundance changes between 1...Figure 22.17 Influence of projected global nitrogen and phosphorus emissions...Figure 22.18 Projected global and regional patterns of change in export of n...Figure 22.19 Global and regional patterns of increased incidence of eutrophi...Figure 22.20 Comparison of historic, current and planned water flows in the ...Figure 22.21 Ozone thinning in the Antarctic is being reversed as a result o...Figure 22.22 Current and projected distribution of plastic on coral reefs. M...Figure 22.23 Projected changes in catch for five important fisheries. Fitted...Figure 22.24 Map of global rights‐based fishery (RBP) programmes. Thes...Figure 22.25 Projected changes in the distribution of two invasive plant spe...Figure 22.26 Global map of the propensity of the world's protected areas to ...Figure 22.27 Current and projected distributions of the world’s most invasiv...Figure 22.28 Principal drivers of biodiversity change in various terrestrial...Figure 22.29 The current state of control variables for critical earth syste...