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CHAPTER 4

Mahayana Buddhism and Hinayana Buddhism

The contents of Shakyamuni's thought that I have spoken of are the overall essentials of what is generally called Buddhist studies. In Buddhist studies, it is usually customary to distinguish in terms of Mahayana (Great Vehicle) and Hinayana (Small Vehicle); in Chinese Buddhist studies and Buddhism, the Mahayana and Hinayana stand side by side, but the comparatively greater inclination is toward the Mahayana. Buddhist studies currently popular in the West mostly concentrate on the Hinayana, recognizing it as the original Buddhism, and of course the Southern tradition of Buddhism in the countries of Southeast Asia are all based on the Hinayana. To give one a foothold of understanding, in the following discussion I will take a relatively simple route, explaining the Buddhist studies of the Hinayana in terms of three items: philosophy, practice, and methods of seeking realization.

Hinayana Thought

In Hinayana thought, a number of general terms are derived from the analysis of mind and body, such as the five skandhas, the three poisons, the twelve faculties and data fields, and the eighteen elements that determine all mental processes. The five skandhas are translated in Chinese as the five shadows or five clusters, representing the sense of darkness and accumulation. The five shadows consist of these five items: form, sensation, conception, activity (volition), and consciousness.

The shadow of form includes whatever is visibly manifest, such as color, size, and space, as well as what is not visibly manifest, such as abstractions, hallucinations, and so forth. The word "form" in Chinese sometimes represents sexuality, but in Chinese Buddhism it is very rarely used to represent sexual desire. In sum, the form shadow includes the four gross elements of the physical and biological body: earth (hard substances), water (flowing liquids), fire (the capacity for heat), and wind (vaporization).

The shadow of sensation refers to the biological sense of feeling as well as to psychological reaction. The shadow of conception refers to the thinking function of discursive ideational consciousness. The shadow of activity refers to the kinetic energy of instinctive movement and activity of body and mind. The shadow of consciousness refers to the spiritual substance of mental function.

Because of the basic psychological evils produced by our bodies and minds in association with the world of physical facts and human affairs, there also come to be the so-called three poisons of greed, anger, and folly. The older Buddhist translations, before the Sui and T'ang dynasties, render these three poisons as lust, wrath, and folly. Due to the different evils produced by the three poisons, there are three kinds of psychological evils, which are greed, anger, and folly; four kinds of evils of speech, which are lying, vilification, duplicity, and frivolity; and three kinds of evils of the body, which are murder, theft, and rape.

Having encompassed the functions of the human mind and body under the rubric of five shadows, at the same time Buddhism also distinguishes the relationship between body-mind and the physical world in terms of twelve sense faculties and data fields:

Six Sense Faculties	Six Data Fields
eyes	form/color
ears	sound
nose	odor
tongue	flavor
body	tactile feeling
mind	mind phenomena

Among these, the only one belonging to the sphere of psychology is the thought pattern of the intellect; as for the rest, such as the tactile feelings generated by the body, all are in the realm of biological and physical functions.

Then there are the four truths and twelve causal conditions, which relate to the view of human life and the worldview. The four truths are suffering, accumulation, extinction, and the Way. This says that all in the world of human life is suffering, pure suffering without pleasure, yet beings lack knowledge and take suffering for pleasure. Suffering is generally categorized in terms of eight pains: birth, old age, sickness, death, not getting what is sought, separation from loved ones, being together with the uncongenial, and flareup of the five shadows. All this is called the truth of suffering.

Because living beings spontaneously pursue passions, they thereby collect and accumulate causes of suffering and so produce suffering as a result, mistaking it for pleasure; this is called the truth of accumulation. If one would extinguish the causes of suffering and the resulting suffering, to arrive at detachment from suffering and enjoyment of bliss, this is called the truth of extinction. Based on this premise, it is inevitable to wish to seek realization of the fruition of the Way, to sublimate human life and attain the ultimate access to reality; this is called the truth of the Way.

Furthermore, since all things and affairs in the human world are changing and unstable, fundamentally lacking in permanent continuity, it is called "impermanent." Because everything in human life is pure suffering without pleasure, it is called "painful." Since all is insubstantial, it is called "empty." Moreover, analyzing the body, mind, and world, we find that there is ultimately no existence of self therein; the so-called world, body, and mind are just supports of self, and are not the reality of self at all, so they are called "selfless." Thus the overall view of the world of human life refers to it as "impermanent," "painful," "empty," and "selfless."

The twelve causal conditions start from ignorance. Ignorance means not understanding the fundamental, not knowing the source. Ordinarily, people are unclear about the origins of human life or the activity of mind and consciousness and do not understand the ultimate. The antithesis of this is to clearly awaken and find out the ultimate, but all living beings come from ignorance, so ignorance is provisionally defined as the first cause.

Activity, the second link in this chain of interdependent relations, arises from ignorance, the primary cause. Activity here means kinetic energy. Third, based on activity there arises the function of consciousness, which is the hidden power of the basic capacity for thought. Fourth, based on consciousness, names (abstract ideas) and forms (concrete biological and physical matter) are constructed. Fifth, based on names and forms, the phenomena of the six sense media are produced. Sixth, based on the six sense media, the feeling of contact arises. Seventh, based on contact, the function of reception in the mind is induced. Eighth, based on reception, the pursuit of cravings arises. Ninth, based on craving, there comes to be a need to grasp. Tenth, based on grasping, the existence of becoming appears. Eleventh, based on becoming, the process of birth takes place. Twelfth, based on birth, is the end result of aging and death. Then, based on aging and death, there is a reentry into ignorance, again forming another causally conditioned life.

Ignorance follows along the order of this cycle of causal conditions as both a cause and an effect, so that repeated birth and destruction are beginningless and endless like a circular ring; falsehood continues, setting up the illusory phenomenon of the process of the world of human life. This didactic model was also used to explain the principles of the physical and temporal extension and continuity of life in the past, present, and future. And if expanded to its fullest implications, it can also be used to interpret time and space.

In sum, the Hinayana Buddhist perspective on the world of human life is just like that of any typical religion, deriving purely from the standpoint of a philosophy of the transmundane, looking on the world as a world of pain and affliction, looking on human life as a life of tragedy and evil, and thus seeking to leave the world, to liberate human life, and to attain pure tranquil nirvana as the fruit of the Way. The praxis and ideology of Hinayana Buddhism are like those of the hermits of Chinese Taoism, biased somewhat like the philosopher Yang Chu; so it had a sort of spiritual affinity with one particular category within Chinese culture and hence was naturally absorbed to become a part of Chinese Buddhism.

The Practice of Hinayana Buddhism

Hinayana practice is based on the three successive studies of discipline, concentration practice, and cultivation of wisdom, ultimately to arrive at liberation and the knowledge and insight of liberation. The rules of discipline contain various different items for monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen. The basic stipulations of the rules are virtues commonly recognized by humanity, such as not killing, not stealing, not raping, and not lying.

Therefore the function of the Buddhist rules of discipline are very much like the spirit of the Book of Rites in Chinese culture, as expressed in the dicta "Do not look at what is improper, do not listen to what is improper, do not say what is improper, do not do what is improper." As for the other detailed regulations, some have to do with manners, and with the self-discipline necessary to prevent subtle and insidious errors. There is also a resemblance to Mo-tzu's lament about "dyeing plain thread with colors," as well as the disciplined frugality of his conduct and the lofty nobility of his aspiration. Except for some of the regulations that vary according to the time and place and are still debatable, really they are a model of virtue purifying the spirit and refining conduct.

Hinayana Methods of Seeking Realization

Hinayana Buddhist methods of seeking realization are mainly based on dhyana. The Sanskrit word dhyana is sometimes translated into Chinese as "quiet meditation," but this term comes from a paraphrase of the Chinese classic Ta-hsueh, or Great Learning, where it speaks of knowing, stilling, settling, quieting, stabilizing, meditating, and attaining. Nevertheless, there is some difference.

Dhyana includes both yoga and insight; it is a sort of method of transforming the temperament and training the mind and body. The meditation concentration of Mahayana Buddhism and the meditation of the Ch'an school of later Chinese Buddhism also have differences and similarities.

As to the methods for attaining dhyana, some start from the firmness of singleminded faith. Some start from the biological basis of anapana, which means tuning the breathing. Some start from the practice of cleaning the mind. Some start from psychological concepts and insights. Some start from mantra or recitation of esoteric writings. The so-called expedient methods for attaining dhyana are manifold, but when they are classified overall in terms of the process and order of their practice and realization, they are not beyond four meditations and eight concentrations (samadhi). They are also called the nine successive concentrations, nine steps of meditative concentration, or nine samadhi. This is because the four meditations and eight stages of concentration can be relabeled in a different fashion, and when the concentration in which senses and perceptions are extinguished is added in, which is the ultimate experience of arhats (those who have attained the highest level of Hinayana realization), they are called the nine successive concentrations.

In the first meditation, with one-pointedness of mind, concentration produces joy and bliss. The expression "one-pointedness of mind" refers to the initial accomplishment of using a particular method of cultivation, where one arrives at a state of mind that is calm and quiet. In this state the spirit and thought are unified, focused on one point without any mixed-up thoughts arising and going off on tangents. Gradually a state of biological bliss is induced that is a basic instinct of life itself and not the same as an ordinary feeling of pleasure, and an incomparable psychological joyfulness is attained that is not the same as an ordinary emotional feeling of delight. In the course of proceeding from the first steps of meditation practice to arriving at this stage, one has already passed through what is commonly referred to as the process of opening up the channels of ch'i in the body; only then can one arrive at the state of mental calmness and unity.

In the second meditation, one experiences a great joy and bliss from having achieved detachment from life. With progressive cultivation from this point onward, the calm and quiet of the mind become even more solid, and the states of joy and bliss become even more stable. There is the feeling of being liberated from the pain and affliction caused by mental and physical pressure.

The third meditation is characterized by detachment from joy and the experience of bliss. Due to the maturation and stabilization of the experience of the psychological joyfulness previously induced, it becomes a habit that is different from the ordinary, and only the state of bliss remains.

The fourth meditation is characterized by relinquishment, mindfulness, and purity. In the three preceding stages of meditation concentration, the functions of feeling and consciousness still remain. Having arrived at the fourth state, one relinquishes feeling and arrives at a state of incomparable quietude, which is finally the ultimate end.

In addition to these four kinds of meditation state, there are also four states of concentration. Concentration in a state of infinite form refers to attainment of mental and physical calm and quiet in the midst of infinite vistas of light. Concentration in a state of infinite space refers to attaining calm and quiet in a boundless infinity of open awareness. Concentration in a state of infinite consciousness refers to attaining calm and quiet in a spiritual state never before experienced. Concentration in a state of neither thought nor thoughtlessness refers to attaining calm and quiet in a state transcending ordinary sensation and perception. The expression "not thought" means that it is not a state of conscious thought; the expression "not thoughtlessness" means that it is not entirely void of a sense of knowledge through spiritual feeling.

The final type of concentration is extinction, the state of arhats, which is a realm transcending ordinary verbal expression. If we were compelled to give a metaphorical explanation, we might say it is equivalent to a state in which the celestial and the human are merged, united with boundless, formless space. Therefore, the arhats, who have achieved the highest attainment of the Hinayana, know beforehand when their earthly life is over. When ready to pass away they manifest wonders, "reduce their bodies to ashes and extinguish their knowledge," saying of themselves, "My life is over, my pure conduct is established, my task is done, and I will not experience any further becoming," and then calmly pass away into extinction.

This simple introduction provides a general glimpse into what Hinayana Buddhism is like. First, by way of study and reflection directed toward theoretical understanding, its application starts with the practice of behavioral discipline according to absolute virtues, and arrives at seeking realization of meditation concentration and attainment of liberation. Its final goal recognizes the possibility of escaping from the sphere of birth and death in this world, and permanently abiding in a spiritual state of absolute quiescence and purity.

In reality, is this spiritual state of purity and quiescence the ultimate attainment of the life of the universe? Is it really possible thereby to be liberated from the cycle of birth and death? From the point of view of Mahayana Buddhism, these are very serious problems.

At the same time, the states of dhyana, as Shakyamuni also said, are a kind of common phenomenon; that is, they are not the monopoly of Buddhism. As long as they deeply understand the principles and diligently cultivate realization, ordinary worldly people and those of other religions and philosophies can all attain similar states of concentration, but none of them are the ultimate complete teaching. They are concerned only with detachment from the world, seeking their own comfort, to resolve the function of discrete portions of the flow of life. They suppose themselves already to have been liberated from birth and death and to be dwelling in the state of extinction and purity, but they have just fallen into a state of partial emptiness, on a par with self-centered hermits, escapists who flee the world. They are practitioners of a kind of thoroughly individualistic freedom. Later the Chinese Zen school called them "board bearers" or "those who only understand themselves." The expression "board bearer" refers to someone who walks along carrying a board across his shoulder and is able to see only on one side.