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— CHAPTER ONE —

RATTLES AND CLAPPERS

DANCING is a most important feature of the social life of all the native peoples of South Africa, and, as an adjunct to the dance, rattles of different kinds are almost invariably used.

The Bushmen had two or three varieties. Pride of place must be given to the dainty ankle-rattles which their women fashioned from the ears of the springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis). They were observed by Burchell (1812),¹ who described them as worn by a Bushman. ‘Round each ankle he wore a sort of rattle, made (in this instance) of four ears of the springbuck, sewed up and containing a quantity of small pieces of ostrich-egg shell, which at every motion of the foot produced a sound that was not unpleasant or harsh, but greatly aided the general effect of the performances.’ Burchell gave a drawing of the rattle on the leg of a dancer,² and he actually obtained the instruments used by the performer. They are preserved in the Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford, where I examined them through the courtesy of the curator, Mr. Henry Balfour. They are black with age and shrivelled up. Two pairs, however, may be seen in South Africa, one in the McGregor Museum, Kimberley, and the other in my collection, given to me by the late Miss D. F. Bleek. Both sets were used by Cape Bushmen, and were made by a Bushwoman near Prieska. They were obtained in 1910. One rattle from the former pair is shown in Figure 1.1. It consists of five ears, beautifully sewn with sinew.

In Bleek and Lloyd’s Bushman Folklore³ there is a quaint account, in the vernacular, of how these dancing-rattles, which were called /keriten, were made by the Qung Bushmen. Miss Lloyd translates it thus:

A woman takes off the skin [i.e. the hairy skin] of the springbok’s ear; and then, she sews the inner skin of the springbok’s ear, when she has laid aside the (hairy) skin of the springbok’s ear; for it is the inner skin of its ear which she sews. And she sews it, and she scoops up with her hand, putting soft earth into it. And they dig, lading in earth, because they wish that the springbok ears may dry; that they may put in //kerri berries when they have taken out the earth. And then they tie on a small piece of sinew at the top of the springbok ear, which was open, while they tie shutting in the //kerri berries, so that the //kerri berries may not come out of the springbok ears; and they put in little threads, which the men are to tie, fastening the springbok ears to their feet.

These rattles were made by the women, and always used by the men, who wore them on their insteps, with the pointed tips uppermost. In the description of a dance, also taken down in the vernacular by Dr. Bleek and translated by Miss Lloyd, there is a passage which contains a hint of a specialist maker of the /keriten: ‘The dancing rattles which the men tie upon their feet sound well, because a woman who works nicely is the one who has worked them. Therefore, they sound nicely, because they are good.’

In the passage which I quoted from Burchell it will be noticed that he used the words ‘a sort of rattle, made (in this instance) of four ears of the springbuck’; and he was correct in so qualifying his description, for dancing-rattles made from other materials were also in use among the Bushmen. The commonest of these are made from a number of empty cocoons, containing a few pebbles, or hard seeds, and strung on two cords of fibre. One of these rattles is from one and a half to two yards in length, and one is wound round each of the performer’s legs and tied securely in position. They are in use at the present day among the Masarwa, and also among the Red Dunes Bushmen of the western Kalahari. A single rattle of the latter people is shown in Figure 1.2. Miss Dorothea Bleek,⁴ in her study of the Naron of the central Kalahari, describes these rattles as made and used by the men of that race. She notes that the cocoons are threaded upon sinews, and that it is the dried grubs within them that cause them to rattle.

Figure 1.2. Bushman ankle-rattles made from cocoons. Photograph by W. P. PAFF.

Chapman,⁵ who in 1852 saw a Bushman dance near Goroge’s Post, described the leg-rattles used by them as being made of the fruit of the moana, the shells of which, perforated with holes and the pulp removed, were tied to the calves of the legs of the men, and rattled as they danced.

Dornan⁶, in his study of the Tati Bushmen, or Masarwa, recorded the use of the rattles of springbok ears by that race, and also ankle-rattles made from ‘the hollow shells of a kind of wild bean’.

Stow⁷ described what, according to him, were known as ‘Bushman bells’. They were made from the skin of the springbok, and might be large or small. The small variety, as Stow describes them, was probably the rattle of springboks’ ears; the larger type, he said, was in the shape of a large hollow sphere, and it was fastened to either the upper arm or shoulder. Unfortunately Stow did not state his authority, either in his work as printed or in the references which were incorporated in his original manuscript, and which Theal, his editor, deleted. I have not been able to verify this form of Bushman rattle.

The Hottentots, so far as I have been able to discover, never used dancing-rattles. They had an elaborate ensemble of reed-flutes (vide p. 193), which supplied music for their dances, and this has been described by many travellers, who make no mention whatever of dancing-rattles.

Dancing-rattles worn on the ankles were used by the Damara. Baines (1861)⁸ saw them; they were made from hard seed-shells, and, to the ears of the Damara, ‘sounded most melodiously’.

Figure 1.3. Chwana ankle-rattles made from cocoons. Photograph by W. P. PAFF.

The dancing-rattles of the Berg-Dama of to-day consist of long strings of cocoons like those of the Bushmen already described; like those, they are twined round the lower part of the dancer’s legs and tied securely. The Berg-Dama call them /kin or /namen. They are only used by men, and the occasion of their use is the dance called /geis, which in the past was a sacred ceremony. It was performed before a hunt in order to ensure success in the chase, or in time of drought, when the rains were overdue.

The Herero also possess dancing-rattles which they call ozohahi. These are made from cocoons, filled with small stones, which are strung on strips of leather, and tied round the ankles of the performer. The ozohahi are only used at the outjina or women’s dance, and only women are allowed to wear them, the men being mere spectators. Dr. Vedder has suggested that these rattles were acquired by the Berg-Dama and Herero from the Kalahari Bushmen.

Dancing-rattles, to be worn upon the legs of the performer, are used by the Chwana men who call them mathlo. They are made from cocoons of a moth (Gonometa postica) like the similar ones of the Bushmen, and they are, like them, constructed in long strings. One such string is seen in Figure 1.3 and Figure 1.4 shows how they were wound round the legs of a Bakgatla native. These rattles were observed by Burchell (1812)⁹ among the Batlaping, and he even obtained the name, which he rendered makków. He, however, said that they appeared to be made of skin, each separate ‘pod’ containing a few small pieces of ostrich-egg shell, or little pebbles. But the drawing of the instrument which he gives shows that the ‘pods’ were threaded on two cords, in exactly the same way as the cocoons of the present day are threaded. It seems scarcely possible that an expert naturalist like Burchell could be mistaken in this matter, and yet I possess specimens of similar rattles in which the dried cocoons are far from easily recognized as such. Thompson (1822–4)¹⁰ saw these rattles worn by a Batlaping woman, and described them as ‘bandages or anklets of leather [sic], with hollow cavities containing small pebbles, which make a rattling noise when she dances’. He also gave a plate¹¹ on which the rattles are clearly seen; they certainly appear to be cocoons, and his use of the word ‘bandages’ undoubtedly suggests the mathlo. Arbousset and Daumas (1832)¹² described how the Chwana utilized oblong rattles, made of dried springbok skin containing pebbles, tying them to their ankles and wrists.

Figure 1.4. Chwana ankle-rattles made from cocoons. Photograph by P. R. KIRBY.

The Pedi also use leg-rattles consisting of long strings of cocoons, and called by them dichela. The cocoons, which are about two inches long, are obtained in the neighbourhood of the Steelpoort River (Lydenburg district, Transvaal). Girls go in parties to gather them, or they obtain them by barter from the people in that area. A hole is cut in each cocoon while it is still pliable, and a small stone is placed inside. The cocoons, thus prepared, are then sewn in pairs to a long cord of plaited fibre. A complete string is about two yards in length, and contains about 140 cocoons. These rattles are used, by women only, in all kinds of dances, and, like the mathlo of the Chwana, they are worn on the legs. One of these rattles is shown in Figure 1.5.

In Bavendaland the leg-rattles are made from very different materials. The earliest reference to them that I have discovered occurs in the dagboek of Louis Trigardt,¹³ the voortrekker, who saw them in use in the Zoutpansberg in 1837. These rattles, which are called mutshakatha or thuzo, are made from small globular fruits the shell of which hardens after the interior is removed. Two holes are burned, opposite to each other, through each fruit, and through these the interior is extracted. A number of smaller holes are also made all round the fruits. A few small stones are inserted through the larger holes, and the fruits are then threaded on sticks, four or five to each stick. The sticks serve the double purpose of joining the fruits together and preventing the stones from falling out. Half a dozen such rows of fruits on sticks are then secured to pads of cloth with fibre cords at the ends by which they may be tied to the legs of the dancer. A typical specimen is depicted in Figure 1.6. Among the Venda the thuzo are used by women as well as by men. They are similar to leg-rattles made and used farther north.

Figure 1.5. Pedi ankle-rattles made from cocoons. Photograph by W. P. PAFF.

The Thonga construct leg-rattles, called mafowa, from fruits and cocoons mounted upon strips of skin. These are wound round the legs in the usual way. One special use of a special kind of leg-rattle used by the Thonga is recorded by Junod.¹⁴ The instrument in this case, which is also called fowa, is made from a root called sungi, which is placed in a kind of round box woven from palm-leaf. This rattle is tied round the leg of a convalescent, and is supposed to protect him from the perspiration of those who have had sexual relations, which is believed to be harmful to convalescents.

Figure 1.6. Venda ankle-rattles made from fruits. Photograph by W. P. PAFF.

Figure 1.7. Zulu ankle-rattles made from cocoons. Photograph by W. P. PAFF.

Among the Zulu the ankle-rattles are of two kinds, both being called amafohlwane. The first of these consists of a number of neat little boxes woven from ilala (Hyphaene coriacea) palm, and containing a few small stones, which are fastened to a fibre cord, and tied round the ankles of the dancer. These are similar to the rattles of the Pondo, described below. The second type, which is often called umfece, because of the material from which it is made, consists of a number of cocoons of the moth Argema mimosae (similar to the cocoons used by the Chwana) which breeds on the wattle and thorn trees of Natal, containing stones, bunched together upon a base of plaited fibre, with strings attached for securing the instrument to the dancer’s legs. A photograph of a specimen of the latter type from my collection is shown in Figure 1.7. The umfece is much affected by Durban ricksha boys, who, however, generally wear a poor imitation of the real thing, consisting of a few cocoons roughly sewn with European string on to an oblong piece of goatskin. Such rattles are also worn nowadays by young girls and boys when they go to a wedding (umtimba), or on any other occasion on which dancing is to be indulged in. Witch-doctors also frequently use the rattles, and according to Mr. A. B. Zungu, of Impolweni, wore them on the wrists and hair as well as on the ankles.

Mr. Foxon, formerly a magistrate in Natal, told me that the terms umfece and amafohlwane signify ankle-rattles made from different materials. The first certainly means the cocoon-rattles, since the word umfece is primarily the cocoon of a certain caterpillar.

Captain Allen Gardiner¹⁵ described the making of the umfece by the Zulu, although he neither gave the name of the instrument nor classed it among the musical instruments which he described. The occasion was a grand dance given at Umgungundhlovu, the seat of the Zulu chief Dingaan, in the early part of 1835.

For two or three days previously, a number of boys had been assembled, to collect very small pebbles, which were afterwards placed within the vacant cocoon of a winged insect of the beetle kind, striped yellow and black, frequently adhering to the Mimosa (Acacia karroo, var. Nataliten) trees; several of these strung together were worn at the ankles by the dancers, and made a jingling noise, which was not unpleasant.

Dancing-rattles of a similar type were also made and used by the Swazi.

The Pondo ankle-rattle, called amahlahlazo, consists, like the amafohlwane of the Zulu, of beautifully woven boxes of ilala palm-leaf, containing small stones, and threaded on cords. A specimen is shown in Figure 1.8.

Among the Sotho of Basutoland, ankle-rattles, called morothloane, are used, although they are becoming scarce. They are made from leather prepared from goatskin. Pieces of this leather are sewn up into little bags, each of which contains a few small stones. The bags are then secured to bands of leather by which they may be fastened round the ankles of the dancer. This instrument is shown in Figure 1.9.

Figure 1.8. Pondo ankle-rattles made from palm-leaf. Photograph by W. P. PAFF.

Casalis (1835) noted the morothloane and described them thus:¹⁶ ‘To increase the pleasure they [the Basutos] find in the regular movements of the hands and feet during the dance, they hang about their persons garlands composed of little bags, each containing one or two small stones. The leather, as it gets dry, becomes stiff and slightly sonorous.’ Casalis¹⁷ also described another type of rattle as ‘an ornament for the head, which is worn as a sort of top-knot; to the cords of which it is composed are attached hoofs of the antelope, which, in the dance, make a noise resembling that of castanets’.

Figure 1.9. Sotho (Bas.) ankle-rattles made from goat-skin. Photograph by W. P. PAFF.

There seems to me to be little doubt that the morothloane of the Sotho of Basutoland, the dichela of the Pedi (Transvaal Sotho), and the mathlo of the Chwana are one and the same instrument. The scarcity of trees in Basutoland, however, made it impossible for those Sotho who had settled there to obtain an adequate supply of suitable cocoons with which to make their ankle-rattles, and consequently they were obliged to devise imitations, for which they used goatskin. It is possible that this may also explain the ‘pods’ alluded to by Burchell (vide supra, p. 4). The effect of the paucity of trees in Basutoland upon other types of musical instruments will be noted later.

I have been told in Basutoland that rattles made from fruits or of bladders were in use, but I have been unable to trace specimens of either variety. It is certain, however, that witch-doctors of several races did at one time wear inflated gall-bladders on their heads as ornaments, and these would possibly rattle as the wearer danced. They are mentioned by a number of the early writers.

The Xhosa dancing-rattles, as used to-day, are quite different in character. The principal variety consists of a number of dry gourds which are fastened round the waist of the dancer and rattle as he moves. They are called imiguza. Another type is the isikunjane, which at the present time consists of a small tin containing a number of pebbles or small pieces of a broken pot. Small holes are made on the under side of the tin, and the mouth is closed to prevent the stones from dropping out. The player ties the isikunjane to his legs immediately below his knees with a strong cord, and, by raising or lowering his knees in various ways, he produces a rhythmic music. This is not accompanied by any kind of singing, but as the player dances about, the other boys follow in their steps the rhythm suggested by the rattling of the stones in the tin. I have been informed that the Xhosa also had ankle-rattles, called amanqashele, made from goatskin. These are said to have been used by the abakweta (vide p. 28) boys when dancing. It is possible that they were derived from the Sotho, but I am unable to prove this, as no specimen could be procured.

Rattles which are not fixed to the body but held in the hand and shaken in definite rhythm are found among several of the races inhabiting the northern and eastern districts of South Africa. Their form and use point to their having been derived from the Thonga.

The Thonga instrument is called ndjele. It consists of an oval calabash, about six inches long, with holes burned through top and bottom, through which a slightly tapered stick, about a foot in length, is thrust to serve as a handle. Through a hole in the protruding tip of the stick a thin peg of wood is pushed, to prevent the calabash from working loose. A few small stones are placed inside the calabash before the instrument is ‘assembled’, and small holes are burned in the sides of the calabash to secure greater resonance, these usually being arranged in some fairly definite pattern. Two Thonga specimens are shown in Figure 1.10, Nos. 1 and 3; a third Thonga example, procured in Bavendaland, is seen in Figure 1.10, No. 2. A Thonga performer, holding the instrument, is seen in company with two players of the mantshomane, a Thonga drum, in Figure 2.21. The ndjele is used, with the mantshomane, in the exorcism of evil spirits which are supposed to possess certain unfortunate individuals. The system of exorcism is described on page 56-57.

The Tshopi use a similar instrument, and it is frequently seen accompanying the timbila (xylophone) ensembles in Johannesburg mine compounds, where it is generally fashioned from a tin, which is mounted on a handle, filled with stones, and perforated with holes, in the same manner as its calabash prototype.

Figure 1.10. Hand rattles. 1, 2, 3, 5, Thonga; 4, 7, Venda; 6, 8, Venda children’s rattles. Photograph by W. P. PAFF.

Figure 1.11. Venda dancing-skirt made from reeds. Photograph by W. P. PAFF

The Venda, whose territory adjoins that of the Thonga, possess the same instrument, and put it to the same use as that race (vide p. 56). They even call it by the same name, tsele. In the Venda ceremonies for exorcizing evil spirits there is a special official, called maine vha tsele, or the diviner of the rattle, who, having been formerly possessed by a spirit, is sent for to confirm the diagnosis of the medicine-man. This diviner is responsible for singing the special malombo song of exorcism, accompanied by a drum-player who is familiar with the particular rhythms used for casting out spirits. A full description of this ceremony is given by Stayt.¹⁸ Figure 1.10, No. 7 shows an example of this rattle.

In the Thabina district of the northern Transvaal, not far from Bavendaland, a hand-rattle of the same kind is in use. It is called in Sepedi mathotse.

I am informed that a similar instrument is in use in the north of Zululand. The fact that this is not a regular Zulu instrument, together with the fact that it is called iselwa, suggests that it, too, has been borrowed from the Thonga.

The Swazi likewise have adopted this type of rattle from the neighbouring Thonga. It is similarly made and used for the same purposes. Its name is ligoshu. Nowadays they frequently use a syrup tin instead of the iselwa, or calabash.

A similar hand-rattle, though of smaller size, is made by the Venda for the amusement of children. Two specimens are shown in Figure 1.10, Nos. 6 and 8. Rattles of the same type, though with more than one calabash fixed on the handle, are seen in the same Figure, Nos. 4 and 5. The first of these is Venda, the second Thonga. They should be compared with the rattle-sticks used in playing the tshizambi, a stringed instrument described on pages 317-8.

A hand-rattle of a similar, though even simpler, type was seen by Baines (1861) among the Damara.¹⁹ It consisted of a fruit from a baobab tree (Adansonia digitata), in which holes had been made, through which the pulp had been squeezed out. The hard seeds were allowed to remain in the fruit, which, when dry, served as a child’s toy. A reproduction of an original drawing by Baines, in which the instrument was shown, appeared in Wood’s Natural History of Man. Samuelson²⁰ has also noted the use of a child’s rattle, called khenqekhenqe, by the Zulu.

Figure 1.12. Thonga playing the spagane. Photograph by W. P. PAFF

Figure 1.13. 1, 3, Chwana marapo; 2, Zulu amatambo. Photograph by W. P. PAFF.

The dancing-skirt worn by Venda boys may also be classed as a rattle. It is made from numerous short lengths of thin reed, measuring from one to two inches in length, strung on cords about fifteen inches long, which are secured to a belt which may be tied round the waist. These dancing-skirts appear to have been derived from the Sotho, who also possess them. A specimen is shown in Figure 1.11.

Zulu women used to make a curious dancing-rattle, called ubuxaka. It consisted of a small bundle of sticks, about eighteen inches long, tied together at one or at both ends. The dancer held these in her hand, and they rattled as she brandished them. They were used especially in the wedding dances, and they would appear to be a feminine imitation of the assegais of the warriors.

Hand-clappers, made from flat slabs of wood with pieces of leather nailed to them so that they may be held securely on the palms of the hands, are used by Thonga natives in Johannesburg mine compounds. These natives are specially selected to represent women in the tribal dances which are regularly performed, and these clappers, which are called spagane, are used for increasing the sound of the hand-clapping, which together with ankle-rattles of cocoons, which are worn by the male dancers, provide the accompaniment for the dance-songs. A typical performer is shown in Figure 1.12.

One other instrument of this kind remains, and it is found to-day among the Zulu and the Chwana. This is the well-known ‘bones’, which were a feature of the ‘Christy minstrel’ performances of former days. The Zulus, who call them amatambo, make them from rib-bones, preference being given to the rib-bones of cattle as they are large and easily held in the hand. They are used for providing a rhythmical accompaniment to singing, and are played on any occasion of rejoicing. A pair, obtained at Nongoma, in Zululand, is illustrated in Figure 1.13, No. 2. I have also found them at Impolweni, in Zululand. The Chwana ‘bones’ are called marapo, and, like those of the Zulu, are made from rib-bones; but those that I have seen were carelessly made. Two pairs, one from Mochudi and the other from Kanye, are shown in Figure 1.13, Nos. 1 and 3, and a Bakgatla girl from Mochudi is seen holding them in position in Figure 1.14.

I have not been able to determine whether the Zulu got the idea of using this instrument from the European or not. The Chwana almost certainly did; the Rev. A. Sandilands, who has been for years a missionary in Bechuanaland, assured me that the fact is admitted by the Chwana themselves.

Figure 1.14. Chwana girl playing the marapo. Photograph by P.R.KIRBY.

1Burchell, W. J., Travels in the Interior of South Africa, London, 1824, vol. ii, pp. 63–5.

2Ibid., p. 45.

3Bleek, W. H. I., and Lloyd, L., Bushman Folklore, London, 1911, p. 351.

4Bleek, D. F., The Naron, Cambridge, 1928, p. 25.

5Chapman, J., Travels in the Interior of South Africa, London, 1868, vol. i, p. 91.

6Dornan, S. S., ‘The Tati Bushmen’, in Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, London, 1917, vol. xlvii, p, 44.

7Stow, G. W., The Native Races of South Africa, London, 1905, pp. 110–11.

8Baines, T., Explorations in South-west Africa, London, 1864, pp. 384–5

9Burchell, W. J., Travels in the Interior of South Africa, London, 1824, vol. ii, p. 572.

10Thompson, G., Travels and Adventures in Southern Africa, London, 1827, p. 107, note.

11Ibid., Plate facing p. 106.

12Arbousset, T., and Daumas, F., Relation d’unvoyage, &c, Paris, 1842, pp. 490–1; English translation, London, 1852, p. 355.

13Preller, G., Dagboek van Louis Trigardt, Bloemfontein, 1917, entries for April 16th and 17th, 1837.

14Junod, H. A., Life of a South African Tribe, second edition, London, 1927, vol. ii, pp. 102, 472.

15Gardiner, A. F., Narrative of a Journey to the Zoolu Country, London, 1836, p. 56.

16Casalis, E., Les Bassoutos, Paris, 1859, pp. 157–8.

17Ibid., pp. 159–60.

18Stayt, H. A., The BaVenda, Oxford, 1931, pp. 302–8.

19Wood, J. G., The Natural History of Man, London, 1868, pp. 354–5.

20Samuelson, R. C, King Cetewayo Zulu Dictionary, Durban, 1923.

Figure 2.1.Hottentot woman playing upon the /khais. Photograph by D. F. BLEEK.