Читать книгу Exploring the Solar System - Peter Bond - Страница 4

1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 The relative sizes of the orbits of the “planets” visible to the ...Figure 1.2 All the major planets follow orbits that lie within 8° of the Sun...Figure 1.3 The apparent retrograde (“backward” or east–west) motions of Mars...Figure 1.4 The distance of a planet such as Mars can be calculated by measur...Figure 1.5 In January 1610, Galileo Galilei used his simple refracting teles...Figure 1.6 (a) If a spacecraft does not accelerate to orbital velocity, it w...Figure 1.7 Some important characteristics of a planet's orbit. Here the plan...Figure 1.8 In the “new” Solar System, as defined by the International Astron...Figure 1.9 The size of the Solar System. The scale bar is in astronomical un...Figure 1.10 These four panels show the scale of the Solar System as we know ...Figure 1.11 In general, a planet's surface temperature decreases with its di...Figure 1.12 The axial inclinations (obliquities) of the planets and Pluto co...Figure 1.13 A circle has an eccentricity of zero. As the ellipse becomes mor...Figure 1.14 Kepler's first law states that the orbit of a planet about the S...Figure 1.15 A graph showing the orbital periods of the planets plotted again...Figure 1.16 The early stages of star and planet formation. (a) A Hubble Spac...Figure 1.17 According to the Nice model, the outward migration of Saturn's o...Figure 1.18 One version of the Nice Model. (1) The giant planets surrounded ...Figure 1.19 The main stages of the Grand Tack Model. Panel (a) shows the ini...Figure 1.20 The most significant satellites in our Solar System are shown be...Figure 1.21 The heliosphere is a bubble in space, filled with the particles ...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 The Milky Way is a spiral galaxy with a bar‐shaped mass of stars ...Figure 2.2 Since the Sun is a ball of gas/plasma, it does not rotate rigidly...Figure 2.3 A SOHO image of a huge prominence rising from the solar disk, wit...Figure 2.4 On July 14, 2000, high‐energy particles from a solar flare left t...Figure 2.5 Once every four weeks, the Moon moves between the Sun and Earth. This is...Figure 2.6 The total solar eclipse of August 21, 2017, was seen across the United S...Figure 2.7 The Moon’s shadow consists of two cone-shaped areas, known as the umbra...Figure 2.8 The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from extremely short waveleng...Figure 2.9 The solar spectrum in the visible, or white light, region. Spectr...Figure 2.10 The P‐P I proton‐proton chain reaction has three stages. During ...Figure 2.11 At the center of the Sun is an extremely dense core, where the t...Figure 2.12 Rotation rates of the plasma near the bottom of the convection z...Figure 2.13 A computer representation of one of nearly ten million modes of ...Figure 2.14 A detailed view of convection cells, or granulation, in the phot...Figure 2.15 Two giant prominences rising from the chromosphere on March 18, ...Figure 2.16 A huge solar filament erupted into space on August 31, 2012. The...Figure 2.17 Taken by the Hinode satellite on January 12, 2007, this image re...Figure 2.18 Like a field of waving grass, small jets of superheated gas, kno...Figure 2.19 A series of coronal loops seen in ultraviolet light by the TRACE...Figure 2.20 A false color image of the corona, made from three exposures tak...Figure 2.21 Based on SOHO data, this image shows irregular magnetic fields (...Figure 2.22 Active regions on the Sun are made up of many relatively small m...Figure 2.23 A magnetic butterfly diagram showing the distribution of the Sun...Figure 2.24 At the start of the 11‐year sunspot cycle, the Sun's magnetic fi...Figure 2.25 Sunspots have a darker, central region (the umbra) surrounded by...Figure 2.26 Sunspots observed by the Hinode spacecraft in February 2014. (To...Figure 2.27 Plasma flows within and around a sunspot, derived from SOHO data...Figure 2.28 An image of the chromosphere obtained by Hinode on November 20, ...Figure 2.29 Snapshots of the changing solar magnetic field (left) and the so...Figure 2.30 This butterfly diagram (top), named for its characteristic appea...Figure 2.31 Plasma in the Sun's outer regions moves rather like a double con...Figure 2.32 A diagram showing roughly east‐to‐west motion at a depth of abou...Figure 2.33 As the Sun rotates every 27 days, the solar wind becomes a compl...Figure 2.34 The corona is threaded with magnetic fields (yellow lines). Area...Figure 2.35 The Ulysses spacecraft was the first to leave the ecliptic and e...Figure 2.36 Polar plots of solar wind speed over each of Ulysses' orbits. Th...Figure 2.37 SOHO's Extreme Ultraviolet Imager took this image of the most po...Figure 2.38 A flare is created when a magnetic loop in the corona rises to g...Figure 2.39 Seismic waves ripple away from the site of a moderate‐sized sola...Figure 2.40 On December 13, 2006, Hinode's Solar Optical Telescope imaged at...Figure 2.41 Hinode is equipped with the highest resolution solar X‐ray teles...Figure 2.42 A SOHO coronagraph image showing a spiral‐shaped CME (lower righ...Figure 2.43 Coronal mass ejections occur when solar magnetic field lines sna...Figure 2.44 An S‐shaped structure (sigmoid), in a solar active region is oft...Figure 2.45 The Cat's Eye nebula in the constellation Draco may resemble the...Figure 2.46 The evolution of the Sun will culminate in a red giant phase, be...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 On a prograde planet like Earth, which rotates from west to east,...Figure 3.2 (a) Earth rotates (white arrows) once a day around its rotational...Figure 3.3 Since Earth's axis is inclined to its orbital plane, the amount o...Figure 3.4 The Sun's motion across the sky, looking south. The maximum heigh...Figure 3.5 Earth's temperature is determined by its radiation budget – the a...Figure 3.6 These images show the amount of long wavelength thermal radiation...Figure 3.7 The vertical structure of Earth's atmosphere. Most of the atmosph...Figure 3.8 A series of images showing the changing size and location of the ...Figure 3.9 Hydrogen is continuously escaping into space, creating a cloud of...Figure 3.10 Earth's main zonal winds are associated with six large atmospher...Figure 3.11 A map of tracks followed by tropical storms and cyclones that de...Figure 3.12 Katrina was the first Category 5 storm of the 2005 Atlantic hurr...Figure 3.13 Spacecraft such as ESA's CryoSat use radar to map surface topogr...Figure 3.14 A multi‐temporal radar image of the Bay of Naples in Italy as se...Figure 3.15 Earth's ocean currents are driven by the prevailing winds. Many ...Figure 3.16 The oceanic conveyor belt. Warm water is carried by ocean curren...Figure 3.17 (Top) Normal conditions in the Pacific Ocean. The trade winds bl...Figure 3.18 Satellite data show a significant decrease in the area of summer...Figure 3.19 Earth's interior is composed of four main layers. At the center ...Figure 3.20 Earth's lithosphere is divided into seven large plates and a num...Figure 3.21 Simple geometry was used by Eratosthenes to calculate the Earth'...Figure 3.22 Earth's surface exhibits a difference in height of about 20 km f...Figure 3.23 Oceanic plates grow at mid‐ocean ridges, where magma rises from ...Figure 3.24 A map of ocean floor age shows the youngest areas (red) along th...Figure 3.25 A series of maps showing the gradual break‐up of the Pangaea sup...Figure 3.26 The Hawaiian Islands and Emperor Seamount Chain formed as the Pa...Figure 3.27 (a) A false color radar image, taken from the Space Shuttle on A...Figure 3.28 The Himalayas are the highest mountains on Earth. They are still...Figure 3.29 Earth's water cycle. Liquid water on the surface is warmed and e...Figure 3.30 This false color Landsat image shows the Grand Canyon of norther...Figure 3.31 Linear dunes of the Namib Sand Sea imaged by an astronaut aboard...Figure 3.32 A satellite image of a dust storm sweeping from the Algerian des...Figure 3.33 The global biosphere. Different plant ecosystems on the continen...Figure 3.34 The lower reaches of the Betsiboka, the largest river in Madagas...Figure 3.35 White hydrothermal smokers on the ocean floor near the Mariana I...Figure 3.36 Meteor crater (also known as Barringer crater) in Arizona is one...Figure 3.37 A computer‐generated gravity map reveals the Chicxulub impact cr...Figure 3.38 The highest tides, known as spring tides, occur when the Moon an...Figure 3.39 Earth's magnetic field creates a huge “bubble” – the magnetosphe...Figure 3.40 NASA's Dynamics Explorer spacecraft imaged both the aurora borea...

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 On average, the Moon's orbit is inclined 5.14° to the ecliptic pl...Figure 4.2 Libration effects sometimes allow parts of the far side to become...Figure 4.3 The apparent size of the full Moon varies considerably between ap...Figure 4.4 Lunar phases are caused by different amounts of the Moon's sunlit...Figure 4.5 The Moon completes one orbit around Earth every 27.3 days. This i...Figure 4.6 Geometry of the Sun, Earth, and Moon during a lunar eclipse. The ...Figure 4.7 A sequence of images showing the lunar eclipse of July 27, 2018. ...Figure 4.8 Earth and Moon shown to scale. Earth's diameter is almost 4 times...Figure 4.9 The Earth‐facing side of the Moon, showing the contrast between t...Figure 4.10 Lunar topography, based on data from Japan's Kaguya orbiter. The...Figure 4.11 A map of lunar crustal thickness derived from analysis of GRAIL ...Figure 4.12 A map of the Moon's gravity field, as measured by NASA's GRAIL m...Figure 4.13 The locations of all the successful landings on the near side of...Figure 4.14 Massive, broken boulders were visited by the Apollo 17 astronaut...Figure 4.15 This panorama shows the landing site of the Chang'e 4 spacecraft...Figure 4.16 The Orientale Basin has three concentric mountain rings – the Co...Figure 4.17 A topographic image of the Oceanus Procellarum region, based on ...Figure 4.18 A view westward, across southwestern Mare Tranquillitatis, from ...Figure 4.19 A mare basalt, showing numerous hollows (vesicles) formed by bub...Figure 4.20 Beads of orange, volcanic glass found at Shorty Crater in the Ta...Figure 4.21 When the Moon first formed its surface was probably composed mos...Figure 4.22 An Apollo 8 image showing the contrast between a dark mare regio...Figure 4.23 Copernicus, one of the youngest major impact craters on the Moon...Figure 4.24 Schematic cross sections of (a) a simple impact crater and (b) a...Figure 4.25 Lying amid a scattering of small, bowl‐shaped craters is 18 km w...Figure 4.26 Four volcanic domes (Phi, Tau, Sigma, and Omega) in the Hortensi...Figure 4.27 A view from the Apollo 15 orbiter, looking southeast across Vall...Figure 4.28 Apollo 15 astronaut James Irwin with the lunar rover at the edge...Figure 4.29 The linear Ariadaeus Rille is a tectonic graben feature where cr...Figure 4.30 Plumes of dust spurt from the wheels of the Lunar Roving Vehicle...Figure 4.31 The likely internal structure of the Moon. Seismic studies indic...Figure 4.32 These Clementine maps show that iron‐rich rocks are concentrated...Figure 4.33 Maps showing distribution of surface ice at the Moon's south pol...Figure 4.34 The geological history of the Moon, showing the principal events...Figure 4.35 A simplified version of how the Moon might have been created by...Figure 4.36 The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package deployed by the cre...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 The changing positions and phases of Mercury and Venus in the eve...Figure 5.2 Key orbital positions of Mercury, observed from Earth. When Mercu...Figure 5.3 Mercury's elliptical path around the Sun shifts slightly with eac...Figure 5.4 Two views of the transit of Mercury on May 7, 2003. The time sequ...Figure 5.5 The spin‐orbit coupling of Mercury means that the planet rotates ...Figure 5.6 The Sun as seen by an observer on Mercury during two Mercurian ye...Figure 5.7 Radio emissions at a wavelength of 3.6 cm show the two hottest re...Figure 5.8 A global mosaic of Mercury captured through red, green, and blue...Figure 5.9 Mariner 10's first close encounter with Mercury took place on Mar...Figure 5.10 Relative sizes of the terrestrial (rocky) planets – left to righ...Figure 5.11 Comparison of the internal structures of Earth and Mercury. Merc...Figure 5.12 Despite its slow rotation, Mercury has a magnetic field which is...Figure 5.13 The two hemispheres of Mercury are shown in false color to revea...Figure 5.14 This topographic map of Mercury includes craters, volcanoes, and...Figure 5.15 This high resolution view of Mercury's intercrater plains is cen...Figure 5.16 Impact structures of different ages and sizes are visible in thi...Figure 5.17 85 km diameter Debussy is a relatively young impact crater with ...Figure 5.18 The multi‐ringed Rembrandt basin has a diameter of about 715 km ...Figure 5.19 An enhanced color MESSENGER view of the 290‐km wide Rachmaninoff...Figure 5.20 Although the Caloris Basin (left) was partly hidden by shadow du...Figure 5.21 The 40‐km wide Apollodorus crater near the center of Caloris Bas...Figure 5.22 This enhanced color mosaic shows that Caloris Basin has been flo...Figure 5.23 This Mariner 10 image shows part of the hilly and lineated terra...Figure 5.24 Mercury's northern volcanic plains, shown in enhanced color to e...Figure 5.25 A topographic map of Mercury's northern hemisphere, showing the ...Figure 5.26 A false color view of dense clusters of hollows, shallow irregul...Figure 5.27 With a length of about 550 km and a height of 1.6 km, Discovery ...Figure 5.28 A color‐coded image of the central part of Carnegie Rupes, where...Figure 5.29 A high‐resolution radar image of Mercury's north polar region, s...Figure 5.30 Diagrams illustrating how Mercury's polar ice deposits may form....Figure 5.31 Comparisons of Mercury's neutral sodium tail, based on data obta...Figure 5.32 The major processes that generate and maintain Mercury's exosphe...Figure 5.33 MESSENGER carried seven scientific instruments, including camera...Figure 5.34 The BepiColombo mission comprises a European polar orbiter (righ...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 The phases of Venus. In this sequence, it appears fully illuminat...Figure 6.2 Venus at the western limb of the Sun, imaged by NASA's TRACE spac...Figure 6.3 Venus spins in a retrograde (east to west) direction, completing ...Figure 6.4 About 75% of the sunlight arriving at Venus is reflected by the h...Figure 6.5 This false color ultraviolet image taken by Japan's Akatsuki orbi...Figure 6.6 This near‐infrared image, taken by the Galileo spacecraft en rout...Figure 6.7 The horizontal structure of Venus' atmosphere, based on data from...Figure 6.8 This series of ultraviolet photomosaics was taken at 7‐hour inter...Figure 6.9 The general meridional (north–south) circulation of the atmospher...Figure 6.10 Atmospheric super‐rotation occurs in the upper clouds, on both t...Figure 6.11 A series of false‐color infrared images of the south polar regio...Figure 6.12 (a) A Venus Express infrared view of a double‐eyed vortex at Ven...Figure 6.13 Possible behavior of gravity waves near mountainous terrain on V...Figure 6.14 A 10,000 km‐long wave feature was imaged in the upper atmosphere...Figure 6.15 Venus probably has a very similar internal structure to Earth, w...Figure 6.16 A topographic map of Venus obtained with the Magellan radar inst...Figure 6.17 Sacajawea Patera is a 233 km‐wide caldera located in western Ish...Figure 6.18 A Magellan radar image of the near‐circular trough of Artemis Ch...Figure 6.19 This topographic map of Venus, centered at 180°E, was composed f...Figure 6.20 A Magellan radar image showing a bright wind streak next to a 5 ...Figure 6.21 A Magellan radar image, centered at 45.2°S, 201.4°E, showing lan...Figure 6.22 Multi‐ringed Mead crater, the largest impact feature on Venus, i...Figure 6.23 Most of the large volcanoes and calderas on Venus are located ne...Figure 6.24 Maat Mons is the highest shield volcano on Venus, rising 5 km ab...Figure 6.25 This Magellan radar image shows a 600 km‐long segment of Baltis ...Figure 6.26 A chain of pancake domes located near the eastern edge of Alpha ...Figure 6.27 Volcanic features such as this are dubbed “ticks,” since they re...Figure 6.28 Idunn Mons volcano in Imdr Regio (46°S, 214.5°E). The brown area...Figure 6.29 A graph showing changes in sulfur dioxide (SO₂) abundance in the...Figure 6.30 As the name suggests, “arachnoids” are spider‐like, circular or ...Figure 6.31 This area, which covers 945 sq. km is centered at 29.8°S, 274.3°...Figure 6.32 TV cameras on Venera 10 produced a 180°, black‐and‐white panoram...Figure 6.33 Venera 13 carried a twin camera system that imaged a 360° panora...Figure 6.34 A Magellan radar image of western Maxwell Montes, the highest mo...Figure 6.35 Pioneer Venus comprised two separate missions. The Multiprobe mi...Figure 6.36 The Pioneer Venus Multiprobe mission began on November 15, 1978,...Figure 6.37 Venus has no internal magnetic field, so the solar wind interact...Figure 6.38 Magellan followed an elliptical, near‐polar orbit around Venus b...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Mars follows a much more elliptical orbit than Earth. As a result...Figure 7.2 The evolution of Martian surface ice during an obliquity cycle. T...Figure 7.3 Martian seasons are based on the solar longitude, abbreviated Ls....Figure 7.4 Mars and Earth shown to scale. With a diameter of 6,792 km, Mars ...Figure 7.5 Mars has a layered interior, with a solid crust, a mantle, and a ...Figure 7.6 A map showing the ages of the major surface units. Most of the yo...Figure 7.7 Global topography, based on data from the Mars Orbiter Laser Alti...Figure 7.8 A topographic map of the Hellas impact basin, the largest on Mars...Figure 7.9 A view of the southern part of the Argyre basin, taken by Viking ...Figure 7.10 Victoria crater, in Meridiani Planum, is about 750 m in diameter...Figure 7.11 HiRISE images of a recent, 6 m‐wide impact crater, taken on Octo...Figure 7.12 A cross section showing the thickness of the crust – about 60 km...Figure 7.13 A computer simulation of mantle convection, modeling the interna...Figure 7.14 Acheron Fossae was once a region of intense tectonic activity an...Figure 7.15 A Viking Orbiter mosaic of the north eastern Tharsis bulge showi...Figure 7.16 Tyrrhena Patera is about 200 km across but has very shallow slop...Figure 7.17 A THEMIS mosaic of Apollinaris Patera, an isolated, ancient volc...Figure 7.18 A MOLA relief map showing the three huge shield volcanoes that f...Figure 7.19 A THEMIS infrared mosaic of Arsia Mons – the southernmost, and p...Figure 7.20 Olympus Mons is the largest volcano in the Solar System. The shi...Figure 7.21 An overhead view of the complex caldera at the summit of Olympus...Figure 7.22 A mosaic of Valles Marineris images obtained by the THEMIS camer...Figure 7.23 Noctis Labyrinthus, at the western end of the Valles Marineris, ...Figure 7.24 Layered sedimentary rock in western Candor Chasma. The area cove...Figure 7.25 NASA's Phoenix spacecraft landed on the northern plains in a reg...Figure 7.26 The northern polar cap is approximately 1,000 km across. The dar...Figure 7.27 The residual south polar ice cap lies on top of smooth layered d...Figure 7.28 Seasonal changes in the north polar cap imaged by the Hubble Spa...Figure 7.29 (a) “Cottage cheese” terrain on the north polar residual ice cap...Figure 7.30 A cross section through the north polar ice cap (top), taken by ...Figure 7.31 The HiRISE camera imaged an avalanche in progress on a steep sca...Figure 7.32 (a) Sand‐laden jets shoot into the southern polar sky in this ar...Figure 7.33 A map showing the estimated lower limit of the water content of ...Figure 7.34 A cross‐section of underground ice is exposed at the steep slope...Figure 7.35 20 km‐wide Bacolor crater lies in Utopia Planitia (33.0°N, 118.6...Figure 7.36 This 5 km‐long, lobed feature on the inner wall of a large crate...Figure 7.37 Three craters in the eastern Hellas region which appear to conta...Figure 7.38 A topographic map of Kasei Valles, the largest outflow channel s...Figure 7.39 The Sojourner rover, which landed near the mouth of the Ares Val...Figure 7.40 A THEMIS image of part of Ares Vallis, near its channel mouth. T...Figure 7.41 (a) 2.5 km‐wide Nanedi Vallis is one of the valleys cutting thro...Figure 7.42 A dendritic valley network at 42°S, 92°W. The small, branching c...Figure 7.43 A fossil flood plain containing a meandering channel, indicated ...Figure 7.44 The Eberswalde delta lies in a crater in the southern highlands....Figure 7.45 Large‐scale polygons on crater floors may be caused by a desicca...Figure 7.46 Gullies in an impact crater in Newton Basin, Sirenum Terra (42.4...Figure 7.47 Images taken by Mars Global Surveyor in December 2001 (left) and...Figure 7.48 Dark, seasonal linear features emanate from bedrock exposures at...Figure 7.49 How Mars might have appeared some 3.5–4 billion years ago if an ...Figure 7.50 This 3D image superimposes gamma‐ray data from Mars Odyssey onto...Figure 7.51 A map showing individual sites where hydrated minerals, formed i...Figure 7.52 A false‐color image of an outcrop, named Comanche, in the Columb...Figure 7.53 Almost 5 km deep, this section of Ganges Chasma reveals ancient ...Figure 7.54 The Opportunity rover landed in a small hollow, named Eagle crat...Figure 7.55 A near‐true‐color image of a rock in Eagle crater called “Berry ...Figure 7.56 A shallow trench made by Spirit's wheel uncovered bright patches...Figure 7.57 The 900‐kg Curiosity rover is the largest, most sophisticated ve...Figure 7.58 Many craters and canyons contain sand dunes. This Mars Express i...Figure 7.59 A global map of dust cover, based on data from the OMEGA instrum...Figure 7.60 Barchan and linear dunes that formed on the floor of a crater an...Figure 7.61 Two sizes of wind‐sculpted ripples are visible on the top surfac...Figure 7.62 Parallel ridges and grooves known as yardangs are sculpted by wi...Figure 7.63 The evolution of a global dust storm. (Left) On June 26, 2001, o...Figure 7.64 The evolution of the June 2001 dust storm that began in the Hell...Figure 7.65 The impact of a dust storm at the Viking 1 landing site (22°N, 4...Figure 7.66 An image by the Spirit rover showing two dust devils crossing th...Figure 7.67 A dust devil seen from above as it creates a curly, dark streak ...Figure 7.68 Scientist Carl Sagan with a model of the Viking lander. The upri...Figure 7.69 The Viking 1 landing site on Chryse Planitia. Orange‐red sand du...Figure 7.70 Viking Lander 2 touched down on Utopia Planitia, further north t...Figure 7.71 The Opportunity rover took this image of vast plains of sand ben...Figure 7.72 A thermal infrared image acquired by Mars Odyssey on October 30,...Figure 7.73 Shade temperatures for the Spirit rover ranged from about 35°C i...Figure 7.74 A frosty morning on Utopia Planitia, imaged by Viking Lander 2 o...Figure 7.75 Thin cloud cover is widespread on a northern summer day in April...Figure 7.76 Four images of an annular (circular) cloud that formed over the ...Figure 7.77 Four images, taken approximately two hours apart, show the evolu...Figure 7.78 NASA's Curiosity rover detected seasonal changes in atmospheric ...Figure 7.79 A map of methane distribution during the northern autumn, based ...Figure 7.80 Various possibilities have been proposed as sources and sinks of...Figure 7.81 A schematic representation of localized magnetic sources in the ...Figure 7.82 The locations of magnetic anomalies, based on data from Mars Glo...Figure 7.83 The solar wind of electrically charged particles (ions and elect...Figure 7.84 Mars Express was Europe's first planetary orbiter. Although its ...Figure 7.85 ALH 84001 is the oldest known Martian meteorite, which is though...Figure 7.86 The biology lab on the Viking landers comprised three separate e...Figure 7.87 Rounded globules in ALH 84001 are made of siderite (brownish iro...Figure 7.88 This segmented, worm‐like object, seen in a scanning electron mi...Figure 7.89 The rovers were equipped with navigation cameras, two high‐resol...Figure 7.90 The route followed by Spirit during the first 1,391 sols, showin...Figure 7.91 A wide‐angle view of Burns Cliff inside Endurance crater, with a...Figure 7.92 The route followed by Opportunity up to March 2015 from its land...Figure 7.93 A false color image of Phobos, taken on October 23, 2007, by Mar...Figure 7.94 An enhanced‐color view of the Mars‐facing hemisphere of Deimos, ...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are sometimes known as the j...Figure 8.2 Jupiter has more than 2½ times the mass of all the other planets ...Figure 8.3 Zonal wind speeds superimposed on an image of Jupiter taken by th...Figure 8.4 Jupiter's dark cloud bands are called belts, and the light bands ...Figure 8.5 Two cylindrical mosaics of Jupiter obtained during the flybys of ...Figure 8.6 False color, near‐infrared images from the Galileo orbiter show c...Figure 8.7 The Galileo Probe detected clouds during its descent into Jupiter...Figure 8.8 A false‐color mosaic of the northern hemisphere derived from near...Figure 8.9 Juno's microwave radiometer examined Jupiter's atmosphere to a de...Figure 8.10 A Voyager 1 image showing lightning on Jupiter's night side, tog...Figure 8.11 A false‐color infrared mosaic of the Great Red Spot taken by the...Figure 8.12 Hubble Space Telescope images show the shrinking size of Jupiter...Figure 8.13 Near‐infrared images from the Galileo orbiter show the “before” ...Figure 8.14 This Hubble Space Telescope image, acquired on April 8, 2006, sh...Figure 8.15 A false color, near‐infrared view of the two red spots – shown h...Figure 8.16 Juno's camera has revealed persistent, polygonal patterns of cyc...Figure 8.17 Jupiter's cloud layer extends to a depth of no more than 50 km. ...Figure 8.18 Jupiter is surrounded by an enormous magnetosphere which deflect...Figure 8.19 Three views of Jupiter's magnetic field lines. (a) north polar v...Figure 8.20 A composite, ultraviolet image of Jupiter's polar auroras, taken...Figure 8.21 Io's yellow cloud of neutral sodium gas, imaged by the 0.6 m tel...Figure 8.22 The main features of the inner Jovian magnetosphere. The plasma ...Figure 8.23 A Hubble Space Telescope ultraviolet image of the Jovian aurora,...Figure 8.24 This false‐color, infrared image by the Hubble Space Telescope s...Figure 8.25 The four largest moons of Jupiter, shown to scale. From left to ...Figure 8.26 Io, the most volcanic body in the Solar System, as imaged by the...Figure 8.27 Volcanoes and the previous day's sunshine warm the nighttime sur...Figure 8.28 A dramatic Voyager 1 view of an umbrella‐shaped plume rising 300...Figure 8.29 Galileo images showing major changes caused by volcanic activity...Figure 8.30 Two images of volcanic eruptions at Tvashtar Catena, a chain of ...Figure 8.31 The Amirani lava field, 500 km long and 180 km wide, is a patchw...Figure 8.32 Like many of the mountains on Io, these raised blocks alongside ...Figure 8.33 The possible internal structures of the Galilean satellites, sho...Figure 8.34 Long, linear cracks and ridges crisscross the surface of Europa,...Figure 8.35 Galileo images of a double ridge on Europa that cuts across olde...Figure 8.36 An enhanced color mosaic of Thera and Thrace Macula, two dark, r...Figure 8.37 An enhanced color view of thin, disrupted, ice crust in the Cona...Figure 8.38 An enhanced color image showing the region around Pwyll, one of ...Figure 8.39 Two different models of Europa's internal structure. (Top) A war...Figure 8.40 These composite images show a suspected plume of material from t...Figure 8.41 Evidence of icy plate tectonics has been found on Europa. This w...Figure 8.42 The Voyagers carried instruments to investigate atmospheres, sat...Figure 8.43 The Voyager flybys of Jupiter took place four months apart. In b...Figure 8.44 A near‐global view of Ganymede taken by the Galileo orbiter. The...Figure 8.45 A Voyager 2 view of the western edge of Galileo Regio. The dark,...Figure 8.46 Topographic detail of Galileo Regio is seen in this 3D view. Not...Figure 8.47 An unusual, caldera‐like depression in the Sippar Sulcus region,...Figure 8.48 Not all bright terrain on Ganymede shows parallel ridges and tro...Figure 8.49 Hubble Space Telescope images of Ganymede's auroral belts (shown...Figure 8.50 This Voyager 2 image of Callisto shows a uniform distribution of...Figure 8.51 The largest impact feature on Callisto is the multi‐ringed Valha...Figure 8.52 Four Galileo views show how increasing resolution modifies inter...Figure 8.53 The left image shows escape velocities color‐coded on a shape mo...Figure 8.54 Jupiter's inner satellites compared in size to Long Island, whic...Figure 8.55 The Galileo spacecraft weighed 2,223 kg at launch and measured 5...Figure 8.56 The Galileo probe, with its heat shield (below) and parachute (a...Figure 8.57 The Galileo Probe measured the variation of temperature and atmo...Figure 8.58 A mosaic of Jupiter's ring system taken when the Galileo spacecr...Figure 8.59 The geometry of Jupiter's rings in relation to the four inner sa...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Saturn is the second‐largest planet in the Solar System, with an ...Figure 9.2 When Cassini arrived at Saturn in 2004, its northern hemisphere a...Figure 9.3 Saturn has a regular pattern of belts and zones aligned parallel ...Figure 9.4 Saturn's wind speeds were calculated by studying Voyager images s...Figure 9.5 Small‐scale cloud features are associated with turbulent eddies a...Figure 9.6 As on Jupiter, Saturn's upper atmosphere is thought to have three...Figure 9.7 A false‐color, near‐infrared, image of the “Dragon Storm,” a larg...Figure 9.8 This Cassini image shows the Great Northern Storm that erupted in...Figure 9.9 The white clouds of the 2010–2011 storm are thought to be produce...Figure 9.10 An infrared mosaic obtained by the Keck I telescope on February ...Figure 9.11 A false‐color thermal image from Cassini, showing night temperat...Figure 9.12 A false‐color Cassini image of Saturn's north pole. The eye of a...Figure 9.13 Saturn is composed mainly of hydrogen, with a substantial amount...Figure 9.14 A false‐color mosaic taken above the northern, unlit side of the...Figure 9.15 Saturn is surrounded by a “normal” tadpole‐shaped magnetosphere,...Figure 9.16 Saturn's main radiation belts extend outward to the orbit of the...Figure 9.17 A sequence of images of Saturn's southern hemisphere taken by th...Figure 9.18 A Cassini infrared view of Saturn's north pole at night reveals ...Figure 9.19 The flight paths of Voyager 1 and 2 through the Saturn system, a...Figure 9.20 Sketches of Saturn made by various observers during the first ha...Figure 9.21 In this diagram from his book, Systema Saturnium, Christiaan Huy...Figure 9.22 A cross‐section of the main rings showing how they differ in str...Figure 9.23 A Cassini false‐color image showing the size and density of ring...Figure 9.24 The temperatures of the unlit side of Saturn's rings are shown i...Figure 9.25 An artist's concept of Saturn's ring material. The mini‐satellit...Figure 9.26 The 8 km‐wide Daphis occupies an inclined orbit within the Keele...Figure 9.27 Propeller‐shaped disturbances in the middle of the A ring. These...Figure 9.28 Analysis of radio signals sent through Saturn's rings to Earth p...Figure 9.29 A Voyager 2 image of numerous, dark “spokes” in the B ring. Ofte...Figure 9.30 The nuclear‐powered Cassini orbiter carried 12 remote sensing in...Figure 9.31 Two shepherd moons, Prometheus (right) and Pandora (left), are s...Figure 9.32 Prometheus creates complex structures in the F ring, shown here ...Figure 9.33 The F ring shows a variety of phenomena in this Cassini image. N...Figure 9.34 This view, acquired on the shaded side of Saturn, reveals two pr...Figure 9.35 The entire inner ring system seen when Cassini was in Saturn's s...Figure 9.36 In February 2009, the Spitzer Space Telescope discovered a huge ...Figure 9.37 The relative sizes of Saturn's nine major satellites in order of...Figure 9.38 A Voyager 2 image showing Titan completely shrouded in a high‐le...Figure 9.39 A cutaway view of Titan showing a possible subsurface ocean of l...Figure 9.40 A cross section through Titan's atmosphere. High altitude haze i...Figure 9.41 The stages in the formation of the aerosols that make up Titan's...Figure 9.42 An artist's impression of seasonal atmospheric changes on Titan....Figure 9.43 A high‐altitude haze associated with a swirling vortex appeared ...Figure 9.44 This dark feature in Titan's south polar region marks a former o...Figure 9.45 The percentage of cloud cover on Titan, July 2004 to April 2010,...Figure 9.46 With the northern summer solstice only a few weeks away, Cassini...Figure 9.47 A mosaic of Titan's surface taken from an altitude of 16 km duri...Figure 9.48 The Huygens landing site on Titan was imaged after touchdown by ...Figure 9.49 Numerous dark patches resembling lakes are visible in radar imag...Figure 9.50 A Cassini synthetic aperture radar image of long, dark ridges – ...Figure 9.51 A Cassini imageof 90 km‐diameter Selk impact crater (left) and a...Figure 9.52 Cassini's radar instrument imaged three parallel ridges, known a...Figure 9.53 A false‐color, 3D radar image of Doom Mons, the best known candi...Figure 9.54 After a journey lasting almost seven years, Cassini‐Huygens ente...Figure 9.55 The anti‐Saturn hemisphere of Enceladus imaged on July 14, 2005....Figure 9.56 A false‐color, infrared view of Enceladus' south polar region (l...Figure 9.57 A false color Cassini image show numerous gaseous plumes eruptin...Figure 9.58 Various models have been proposed for the geysers of water vapor...Figure 9.59 The clear‐filter image of Mimas (left) has been processed to enh...Figure 9.60 Multi‐ringed Odysseus crater, 450 km in diameter, covers much of...Figure 9.61 Dione's bright cliffs diverge across the smooth plains on its tr...Figure 9.62 A natural color view (left) of Rhea's trailing hemisphere show b...Figure 9.63 A high‐resolution, false‐color mosaic of Hyperion. At the center...Figure 9.64 Iapetus has a dark leading hemisphere and a bright, icy, trailin...Figure 9.65 Cassini's view of Phoebe, taken from a distance of 32,500 km. 22...Figure 9.66 A montage of Cassini images shows three of Saturn's small ring m...

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 The relative sizes of Uranus, Earth, and Earth's Moon. Uranus is...Figure 10.2 The axis of Uranus is tilted almost parallel to the plane of the...Figure 10.3 From the late 1960s, Uranus' south pole was aligned with the Sun...Figure 10.4 Temperature profile of the Uranian troposphere and lower stratos...Figure 10.5 These two near‐infrared images, taken with the Keck II telescope...Figure 10.6 The first confirmed image of a dark spot on Uranus was obtained ...Figure 10.7 Infrared images of Uranus (1.6 and 2.2 microns) obtained on Augu...Figure 10.8 Average zonal wind speeds observed at cloud level on Uranus and ...Figure 10.9 These specially processed images, taken with the Keck telescope,...Figure 10.10 This Hubble Space Telescope image of Uranus, taken in November ...Figure 10.11 The overall density of Uranus is only a little higher than that...Figure 10.12 The magnetic field of Uranus, shown as a dipole tilted about 59...Figure 10.13 A composite image of Uranus by Voyager 2 and two different obse...Figure 10.14 Two views of Uranus returned by Voyager 2's narrow angle camera...Figure 10.15 Voyager 2 flew to within 81,600 km of Uranus' cloud tops on Jan...Figure 10.16 A “family portrait” of Uranus' five largest moons. From right t...Figure 10.17 Oberon (left) and Titania (right) are the largest moons of Uran...Figure 10.18 Umbriel (left) and Ariel (right) are similar in size and densit...Figure 10.19 Although it is only 472 km across, Miranda displays a bizarre v...Figure 10.20 In this false color view, taken by Voyager 2, the nine original...Figure 10.21 Two Voyager images of the main Uranian ring system compared. Th...Figure 10.22 Two small moons, both about 40 km in diameter, were found by Vo...Figure 10.23 At 2.2 microns, methane and hydrogen in Uranus' atmosphere abso...Figure 10.24 These Hubble Space Telescope images taken in 2003 and 2005 show...Figure 10.25 A comparison of the outer rings of Saturn (top) and Uranus, wit...Figure 10.26 The crowded region within the orbit of Miranda contains 13 know...Figure 10.27 Puck is roughly spherical and about 160 km across, making it th...Figure 10.28 The orbits of the outer satellites. All are highly elliptical a...

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Unexpected perturbations in the motion of Uranus caused astronom...Figure 11.2 Voyager 2 was targeted for closest approach only 4,500 km above ...Figure 11.3 This false‐color image from Voyager 2 shows a high‐level haze (r...Figure 11.4 Voyager 2 imaged bright, linear clouds of methane ice casting sh...Figure 11.5 A comparison of the temperature and pressure of the upper atmosp...Figure 11.6 Thermal images show temperatures near the top of Neptune's tropo...Figure 11.7 Neptune is the windiest planet in the Solar System. The planet a...Figure 11.8 Voyager 2 images of the Great Dark Spot showed bright cirrus‐lik...Figure 11.9 A Voyager 2 image showing features in Neptune's southern hemisph...Figure 11.10 Occasionally, Neptune exhibits large, dark cloud features. Thes...Figure 11.11 Changes in Neptune's appearance 1996–2002, as seen by the Hubbl...Figure 11.12 Images obtained with the Keck telescope in 2017 revealed an ext...Figure 11.13 A large dark spot to the left (west) of a partially overlapping...Figure 11.14 Like Uranus, Neptune is believed to consist mainly of a vast in...Figure 11.15 Like the other giant planets, Neptune's magnetic polarity is th...Figure 11.16 Triton experiences a remarkably complex succession of seasons a...Figure 11.17 A photomosaic of Triton centered near 20°N, 0°W. The equator li...Figure 11.18 Sublimation of nitrogen frost in Triton's summer hemisphere is ...Figure 11.19 Two images of the dark Mahilani plume on Triton, imaged by Voya...Figure 11.20 Ruach Planitia is a 175 km‐wide walled plain bounded on all sid...Figure 11.21 The orbits of Neptune's inner satellites and Neptune's rings. H...Figure 11.22 Proteus imaged on August 25, 1989, from a range of 146,000 km. ...Figure 11.23 The orbits of Neptune's five outer moons are all highly ellipti...Figure 11.24 The five inner satellites orbit close to or within the rings of...Figure 11.25 Two long exposures of Neptune's rings taken by Voyager 2 from a...Figure 11.26 Near‐infrared observations made with the Hubble Space Telescope...Figure 11.27 Reprocessed HST images taken in 2004 show the Adams and Le Verr...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 The Edgeworth‐Kuiper Belt is named after Kenneth Edgeworth and G...Figure 12.2 The first Kuiper Belt object, known as 1992 QB1, was found by Da...Figure 12.3 A graph showing the distribution of different classes of objects...Figure 12.4 One of the first images of the small Kuiper Belt object 2014 MU6...Figure 12.5 This composite of enhanced color images of Pluto (lower right) a...Figure 12.6 Eris is one of the largest known Kuiper Belt objects, similar in...Figure 12.7 The largest known KBOs compared with Earth and the Moon. Eris is...Figure 12.8 Dwarf planet Haumea is the first Kuiper Belt object known to hav...Figure 12.9 The orbit of Sedna ranges between 76 AU and 975 AU, so that it i...Figure 12.10 2004 XR190 has a unique orbit (red) which is highly inclined bu...Figure 12.11 The Herschel infrared observatory determined the albedos (refle...Figure 12.12 This HST composite shows the apparent orbit of one member of th...Figure 12.13 Clyde Tombaugh (1906–1997) using the blink comparator to search...Figure 12.14 These photos, taken on January 23 and 29, 1930, with the 33 cm ...Figure 12.15 Pluto is tipped on its side with its spin axis close to the pla...Figure 12.16 Pluto follows an eccentric orbit, with perihelion at 29.6 AU an...Figure 12.17 Pluto's axial inclination of 120° means that it appears to rota...Figure 12.18 A comparison of HST maps of Pluto, obtained in 1994 (above) and...Figure 12.19 HST images of Pluto showing how the surface appeared 2002–2003....Figure 12.20 The distribution of four ices on Pluto. Brighter colors represe...Figure 12.21 The New Horizons spacecraft captured this view of Pluto on July...Figure 12.22 This image from New Horizons shows blocks of Pluto's water ice ...Figure 12.23 The New Horizons spacecraft during its encounter with Pluto (fo...Figure 12.24 New Horizons' trajectory through the Pluto system. Times are UT...Figure 12.25 This is one of the best views New Horizons obtained of the Plut...Figure 12.26 The key geological features of Sputnik Planitia and its surroun...Figure 12.27 One model of Pluto's interior includes a large core of hydrated...Figure 12.28 At least a dozen haze layers in Pluto's atmosphere are shown in...Figure 12.29 For perhaps 20% of its orbital period, Pluto is a dynamic world...Figure 12.30 Artist's concept of the interaction of the solar wind (the supe...Figure 12.31 The relative sizes of Earth, Pluto, and Charon.Figure 12.32 NASA's New Horizons spacecraft captured this high‐resolution, e...Figure 12.33 The side of Charon viewed by the New Horizons spacecraft is cha...Figure 12.34 The orbits of Pluto's moons: Charon, Nix, Styx, Kerberos, and H...Figure 12.35 A composite view of Pluto's small moons, shown to scale, using ...Figure 12.36 A computer simulation showing how Pluto and Charon may have for...Figure 12.37 The extreme orbits of at least six trans‐Neptunian objects (mag...

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 The vast majority of asteroids travel around the Sun in the “mai...Figure 13.2 Most asteroids are so small and far away that they are visible a...Figure 13.3 A view of near‐Earth asteroid Itokawa taken by Japan's Hayabusa ...Figure 13.4 The distribution of asteroids between Earth and Jupiter, showing...Figure 13.5 Itokawa is the smallest asteroid ever seen from close range. Des...Figure 13.6 Hayabusa was the first mission designed to land on an asteroid a...Figure 13.7 Two small near‐Earth asteroids visited by sample return missions...Figure 13.8 Main belt asteroid 243 Ida is a member of the Koronis family. Th...Figure 13.9 This infrared composite image, obtained with the Canada‐France‐H...Figure 13.10 These radar images of Toutatis were obtained by the ground‐base...Figure 13.11 Main belt asteroid 87 Sylvia was the first triple asteroid syst...Figure 13.12 An unevenly shaped asteroid heated by solar radiation re‐radiat...Figure 13.13 An enhanced‐color image of Ceres made from data obtained from N...Figure 13.14 Cerealia Facula, the brightest spot on Ceres, is about 15 km wi...Figure 13.15 Ceres' sole mountain, Ahuna Mons (top), is 4 km high and 17 km ...Figure 13.16 A cutaway view of Ceres shows a 40 km‐thick outer crust (light ...Figure 13.17 An artist's concept of the Dawn spacecraft with Vesta (lower le...Figure 13.18 A size comparison of nine asteroids that have been visited by s...Figure 13.19 Dawn mapped the distribution of hydrogen on Vesta. The hydrogen...Figure 13.20 This false‐color relief map of Vesta's south polar region was c...Figure 13.21 An image taken by ESO's Very Large Telescope in 2017 shows Pall...Figure 13.22 NEAR‐Shoemaker investigated two asteroids, shown here at the sa...Figure 13.23 A mosaic of six images taken by NEAR‐Shoemaker on February 29, ...Figure 13.24 There are three main groups of near‐Earth asteroids: the Apollo...Figure 13.25 The extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago is widely ...Figure 13.26 This photo taken during the 1927 expedition shows parallel trun...Figure 13.27 The Hoba meteorite (also known as Hoba West) is the largest sin...Figure 13.28 The calculated orbits of Earth‐impacting meteorites and the Che...Figure 13.29 A 700‐g piece of NWA 869, an ordinary chondrite meteorite. Nume...Figure 13.30 A rare carbonaceous chondrite meteorite, part of the large fall...Figure 13.31 This iron meteorite was discovered near Tamentit in the Algeria...Figure 13.32 A slice through a pallasite stony‐iron meteorite found near Spr...Figure 13.33 Iron meteorites are the most common of the few meteorites that ...Figure 13.34 This drawing shows the famous Leonid meteor storm that took pla...Figure 13.35 A 10‐micron interplanetary dust particle collected in the strat...Figure 13.36 Comets travel around the Sun in highly elliptical orbits. As th...Figure 13.37 Comet Hale‐Bopp, discovered by Alan Hale and Thomas Bopp on Jul...Figure 13.38 The ROSAT satellite discovered X‐ray and extreme ultraviolet (E...Figure 13.39 This composite image, the first detailed view of a comet's nucl...Figure 13.40 Comet C/2006 P1 (McNaught) provided a spectacular sight close t...Figure 13.41 A false‐color, composite view of comet Borrelly taken by NASA's...Figure 13.42 A composite image of comet Wild 2 taken during Stardust's flyby...Figure 13.43 Comet Hartley 2 was imaged by the Deep Impact orbiter from a di...Figure 13.44 Rosetta imaged a plume of dust erupting from the surface of 67P...Figure 13.45 This Rosetta navigation camera image of comet 67P shows its two...Figure 13.46 The color of visible light reflected by comet 67P on August 1, ...Figure 13.47 Images taken by Rosetta show that a 30 m‐wide boulder moved 140...Figure 13.48 This Spitzer Space Telescope infrared image, taken May 4–6, 200...Figure 13.49 The Hubble Space Telescope imaged 22 pieces of comet Shoemaker‐...Figure 13.50 The zodiacal light is a cone of faint light which is visible ab...Figure 13.51 Orbits of the first three known main belt comets (red), the fiv...Figure 13.52 Two “sungrazing” comets with extended tails of dust and ice are...Figure 13.53 Stardust spacecraft brought back samples of comet (and interste...Figure 13.54 In order to prevent damage and preserve them during and after t...Figure 13.55 A composite image of comet Tempel 1 taken by the high‐resolutio...Figure 13.56 An image of comet 1P/Halley taken on March 8, 1986 by W. Liller...Figure 13.57 The Oort Cloud is a hypothetical, spherical swarm of icy bodies...Figure 13.58 On September 19, 2017, interstellar object 1I/2017 U1 ('Oumuamu...Figure 13.59 'Oumuamua, the first interstellar object discovered in the Sola...

14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 An artist's impression of a planetary system around pulsar PSR B...Figure 14.2 Images of Beta Pictoris, taken by the Advanced Camera for Survey...Figure 14.3 This composite infrared image shows a giant exoplanet inside the...Figure 14.4 Thirty protoplanetary disks in the Orion Nebula, imaged by the H...Figure 14.5 Spectra obtained by the Spitzer infrared space observatory revea...Figure 14.6 This is the first clear image of a planet caught in the act of f...Figure 14.7 Spectroscopy enables scientists to deduce the temperature and ch...Figure 14.8 Infrared observations with NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope show t...Figure 14.9 The stages in the formation of a counter‐rotating protostellar d...Figure 14.10 Brown dwarfs are classified as gaseous, sub‐stellar objects wit...Figure 14.11 The exoplanet CoRoT‐3b compared with the Sun and Jupiter. The e...Figure 14.12 This graph plots exoplanets based on their size and distance fr...Figure 14.13 An illustration of how an Earth‐sized planet orbiting close to ...Figure 14.14 An exoplanet in transit across a star's disk causes a tiny drop...Figure 14.15 The first visible‐light imagesof an exoplanet were taken by the...Figure 14.16 Gravitational microlensing occurs if the light rays from a star...Figure 14.17 Kepler was designed to survey a single star field in the Cygnus...Figure 14.18 Since exoplanet transits are very brief, Kepler had to monitor ...Figure 14.19 A graphic showing exoplanet missions flown or planned by NASA, ...Figure 14.20 If a planet transits the face of its star, it is possible to ca...Figure 14.21 The population of exoplanets detected by the Kepler mission (ye...Figure 14.22 HD 80606b has the second most eccentric orbit yet found for an ...Figure 14.23 These computer‐generated images chart the development of therma...Figure 14.24 Jupiter‐sized HD 189733b orbits close to a star 63 light years ...Figure 14.25 Spectral observations of hot Jupiter HD 209458b, depicted in th...Figure 14.26 Hot exoplanet HD 209458b may be surrounded by an extended envel...Figure 14.27 Hot Jupiter WASP‐12b is being destroyed by strong heating and t...Figure 14.28 WASP‐18b orbits a star about 330 light years from Earth. The pl...Figure 14.29 CoRoT‐7b was the first confirmed rocky exoplanet. It is larger ...Figure 14.30 A comparison between three systems with planets in habitable zo...Figure 14.31 The TRAPPIST‐1 system contains a total of seven known planets, ...Figure 14.32 The number of known exoplanets in each planetary system, as of ...Figure 14.33 Kepler‐90 is a Sun‐like star that is orbited by at least 8 exop...Figure 14.34 The sizes of the Kepler‐90 planets compared to the planets of o...Figure 14.35 A comparison between 55 Cancri (top) and our Solar System. The ...Figure 14.36 Epsilon Eridani is one of the closest known planetary systems, ...Figure 14.37 HR 8799 was the first exoplanet system to be directly imaged. I...Figure 14.38 An artist's impression of a Neptune‐sized exomoon which Hubble ...Figure 14.39 This diagram represents Hubble Space Telescope photometric obse...Figure 14.40 The location of the habitable zone varies according to the mass...Figure 14.41 The width of the habitable zone (green) and its distance from t...Figure 14.42 The Arecibo message was sent from the giant radio telescope in ...Figure 14.43 Pioneer 10 and 11 carry a 15 × 23 cm, gold‐anodized aluminum pl...Figure 14.44 This gold‐anodized aluminum cover protects the Voyager 1 and 2 ...