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Like other disciplines, psychology has its own terminology and jargon. Your topic-specific textbooks (such as your introductory psychology textbook, cognitive psychology textbook, etc.) introduce you to the specific, technical terms. But even in your own writing about psychology, common words are frequently confused; sometimes this is due to a psychological “spin” placed on those words. Honestly, many of these words are commonly confused in disciplines beyond psychology, so keep this list in mind when writing any paper. Following is a brief listing of commonly confused words, with definitions designed to clear up the confusion (with some assistance from www.dictionary.com).

advice/advise

advice: noun, an opinion given, such as a recommended action

advise: verb, to give counsel, information, or notice

affect/effect

affect: verb, to act on or produce a change in; noun, feeling or emotion

effect: noun, a result or consequence; verb, to bring about

allusion/illusion

allusion: noun, the incidental mentioning or casual referral

illusion: noun, a type of deception or false impression of reality

cite/site/sight

cite: verb, to quote (typically) an authority, to mention as proof

site: noun, the position or location of an item to be located; verb, to put into position or locate

sight: noun, vision, the perception of objects with your eyes; verb, to see or notice or observe

conscience/conscious

conscience: noun, one’s inner sense of right and wrong; ethical, moral principles

conscious: adjective, one’s own awareness of thoughts, sensations, existence

council/counsel

council: noun, an assembly of individuals selected to provide consultation or advice

counsel: noun, advice given to direct the conduct of someone else; verb, to advise or give advice

data/datum

data: noun, plural form, individual facts, statistics, or items of information

datum: noun, singular form of data for one number or a single case

elicit/illicit

elicit: verb, to extract, bring out, or evoke

illicit: adjective, unlawful, not legally permitted or authorized

lay/lie

lay: verb, to place or to put an object at rest, or set down

lie: verb, to be in a horizontal position, recline, to rest, remain, to be situated; to spread a falsehood; noun, a false statement made with intention to deceive, a falsehood

passed/past

passed: verb, past tense, to have moved in a specific direction (e.g., “They passed through Tiffin, Ohio, on their way to Beverly, Massachusetts.”)

past: adjective, gone by in time and no longer exists (e.g., “The flight is now past.”); noun, a time prior to the present moment in time (e.g., “They lived in Green Bay, in the past, before moving to Corvallis.”)

personal/personnel

personal: adjective, pertaining to one individual, private

personnel: noun, the collection of individuals employed in an organization

precede/proceed

precede: verb, to go before, to introduce something preliminary

proceed: verb, to move or go forward, to carry on or continue an action; noun, the total amount derived from a sale or transaction

principal/principle

principal: adjective, highest rank of importance or value; noun, a chief or head or director

principle: noun, fundamental or general law or truth from which other truths are derived

respectfully/respectively

respectfully: adverb, showing politeness or deference

respectively: adverb, in the precise order given, sequentially

then/than

then: adverb, at that time, next in order of time, in that case; noun, that time; adjective, existing or acting (e.g., “the then president”)

than: conjunction, used to show unequal comparison (e.g., “colder than yesterday”), used to show difference or diversity; preposition, to connect two nouns (e.g., “this is better than that”)

who/whom

who: pronoun, which person or people; start of a clause to provide information about a person or people (e.g., “who is the captain?”)

whom: pronoun, the object of a verb or preposition (e.g., “whom did she see?”)