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ОглавлениеThe Ritual Practice of Formal Exercises
Long before the advent of sport sparring and the invention of modern safety gear, in a time when to fight meant to defend one’s life from almost certain death, an ingenious method of transmitting martial arts skills from venerated master to loyal disciple was developed. Legend has it that experienced warriors returning unscathed from combat, a testimony in and of itself to their martial prowess, mimicked techniques used to vanquish multiple opponents on the field of battle for the benefit of those less qualified in the ways of war.2 This ritual, performed with and without weapons, may have been practiced around a campfire, in secret gardens, or in the incense-filled halls of an ancient Buddhist temple. All of which lends credence to the notion that the dynamic process of cataloging sequential packets of defensive and offensive skills through formal exercises has existed for centuries.3 Several examples demonstrating this concept can be traced back to antiquity with roots found in primitive works of art and ancient yogic postures originally intended to promote health and core strength in sedentary clerics. Today, poomsae, hyung, tul, kata, and taolu, all culturally specific terms for choreographed sequences of self-defense techniques aimed at defeating multiple attackers approaching from various directions, represent the cornerstone of any traditional martial art.
This mural, discovered by archeologists in 1935, appears on the ceiling of Muyong-chong, a royal tomb in southern Manchuria built during the Koguryo dynasty, between AD 3 and AD 427. The painting depicts two men engaged in a type of sparring activity. Courtesy of US Institute of Martial Arts at http://www.emporium.net/taekwondo/history.html. Courtesy of Richard Chun.
Generically defined as forms or formal exercises, the core patterns, which support the technical foundation of Korean taekwondo, Japanese karatedo, and the various styles of Chinese gungfu, are distilled from primitive combat elements that eventually coalesced and evolved into the subsequent predetermined routines unique to these classic martial disciplines. An illustration of this linkage, particularly as it relates to traditional taekwondo, can be found in mural paintings that appear on the ceiling of Muyong-chong, a royal tomb built between AD 3 and AD 427 during the Koguryo period (37 BC–AD 668). Discovered by archeologists in 1935, these ancient images depict two warriors engaged in a type of free sparring. While these tactics in and of themselves do not constitute the prescribed combinations of techniques that comprise forms, they do confirm the existence of an organized combat discipline unique to that time and region.
Image of the Buddha. Courtesy of Doug Cook.
Likewise, if one were to visit Sokkuram Grotto located high in the mountains of Korea surrounding the great Kyongju plain, he would witness the granite image of Sokgamoni, the grandest Buddha in all of Asia, whose presence reflects sublime beauty as he sits gazing out over the East Sea and farther on toward the rising sun and Japan. The illustrious history of this sacred site reaches back to the year AD 751 when King Gyeongdeok commissioned Prime Minister Kim Taesong, a member of the royal family, to supervise the construction of an enduring monument to the Buddhist faith. After painstaking research, he chose a site of spiritual significance high atop Mount Tohamsan situated in the heart of the Sillian capital.4 Here, at the eastern terminus of the Silk Road, not an hour’s walk from Bulguksa Temple, the elaborate shrine to “Buddha Land,” grew Sokkuram Grotto, a symbol regarded as a supernatural defense against external threats to the national consciousness of the kingdom.
Sokkuram is an artificial cave that consists of an anteroom, an entryway, and a temple in the shape of a dome. Hundreds of granite sections of various shapes and sizes were pieced together by an ingenious method using stone rivets rather than mortar to bind them. Natural ventilation controls humidity and temperature inside the grotto. The image of Sokgamoni, positioned slightly off center in the domed temple, is chiseled from a single block of granite and stands over ten feet tall. This unusual position takes advantage of a lighting phenomenon that causes his presence to appear centered when viewed from the anteroom. With eyes partially closed, a faint smile painting his lips, the Buddha is seated in a lotus position with his right foot exposed as it lies across his left knee. The hands are set in a classic mudra, or gesture that supports enlightenment. It is clear that the gifted sculptors did not wish Sokgamoni to feel lonely during his eternal vigil through time. Surrounding him is a pantheon of lesser deities in the form of Avalokitesvara, the bodhisattva of compassion; four heavenly kings, representing the four corners of heaven; and a cadre of deva kings.
Master Doug Cook at Bulguksa Temple, South Korea. Courtesy of Patty Cook.
Keumgang Yuksa. Courtesy of Doug Cook.
But for the taekwondoist, perhaps the most significant of these images is that of Keumgang Yuksa, the stern guardian-warrior stationed at the entrance of the Tong-Il Jeon shrine in Kyongu, South Korea. Cast in bas-relief, he seems to leap out in defense against the demons that threaten the sanctity of this spiritual vortex. Naked to the waist, exposing a muscular torso adorned below in a flowing skirt, he was selected by Kim Taesong to defy the invisible enemies of Buddhism. Translated from Sanskrit as “diamond” or “thunderbolt,” Keumgang embodies the power of compassion yet manifests raw, physical power. It is from this potent example that taekwondo draws elements of its technical heritage. Martial arts historians trace the high block (olgool makki), palm heel strike (batangson chigi), and knife hand (sonnal) to this ancient warrior. Supported by one leg in some cases, his crane stance (hakdari seogi), too, has contributed to the defensive arsenal of taekwondo. Currently, Keumgang Yuksa is memorialized in Keumgang, a black belt poomsae inspired by his name as well as a majestic mountain range located within the borders of Korea. Featuring the diamond block (keumgang makki) and crane stance, this formal exercise emphasizes the strength of nature’s hardest substance, the diamond, in cutting through unforeseen adversity. Moreover, since Korea, the homeland of taekwondo, is no stranger to life’s struggle for survival, the philosophical component underscoring this poomsae is all the more poignant. As millions of martial artists worldwide acknowledge this faithful warrior through the practice of Keumgang poomsae, he remains unwavering, standing his eternal watch at the entrance of Sokkuram. Always the silent sentinel, it is forces unseen that he defies and defends against.
Grandmaster Chun (left) and Master Cook at Bulguksa Temple in Korea. Courtesy of Patty Cook.
Moreover, beyond the borders of Korea, within the vastness of China, lies the Shaolin Temple, widely regarded as the fountainhead of the Asian martial arts. There, in the early sixth century, formal exercises used as a vehicle for cultivating physical discipline and defensive tactics begin to materialize when we examine the life of the Zen Buddhist patriarch Bodhidharma, third son of the Brahman Indian king, Sagandha. Early references are made to Bodhidharma’s association during his youth with a warrior caste known as the Kshatriya. Through this alliance, he became schooled in the empty hand fighting art of vajramushti. It is conjectured that Bodhidharma traveled to Hunan Province in Northern China, eventually finding his way to the fabled Shaolin Temple. Upon his arrival, he discovered that the clerics inhabiting the monastery were incapable of sitting in meditation for extended periods in part due to the extremes of their environment coupled with a weakened state of mind and body. As a result, Bodhidharma initiated a series of formal exercises that came to be known as Shih Pa Lo Han Sho, or the Eighteen Hands of Lo Han. These movements were imparted with the hope of strengthening the residents’ ability to concentrate while preserving the spiritual harmony required in monastic life. Given Bodhidharma’s adherence to Buddhist doctrine, the Shih Pa Lo Han Sho routines were, in all likelihood, initially intended as a non-violent form of discipline, but may well be credited with spawning many of the taolu, kata, and poomsae prevalent today. Furthermore, since their religious ideology forbade the use of weapons, teaching the Shaolin monks how to defend themselves from wild animals and marauding bandits during their travels, both valid concerns of the day, through the use of empty hand techniques, came as a secondary benefit. It is also claimed that Bodhidharma was responsible for teaching the clerics methods to cultivate ki, the vital life force, in the form of Da Mo’s Wei Dan (Bodhidharma’s Internal Elixir).5 Aimed at concentrating this internal energy within specific parts of the human anatomy for martial purposes while at the same time insuring against ki blockages that can result in illness, these exercises are said to be the precursor of the routines found in modern day qigong.
A statue of Bodhidharma at Golgusa Temple in Kyongju, South Korea. Courtesy of Doug Cook.
Similarly rooted in Chinese culture, the Baduanjin routine, or Eight Pieces of Brocade, a medical qigong therapy whose performance is professed to impart a silken quality to the body, dates back to AD 1300 where it appears in the Xiuzhen shi-shu (Ten Compilations on Cultivating Perfection). An encyclopedia of the time, this text attributes the creation of this formal exercise to Zhongli Quan and Lu Tung-pin, two of the Eight Taoist Immortals. Later, in keeping with the martial tradition of forms as an adjunct to battle through conditioning, Chinese general Yue Fei required his soldiers to perform the Baduanjin to achieve physical fitness.
Centuries after Bodhidharma planted the seeds that would eventually blossom into the varied Buddhist and Taoist-based Chinese disciplines we are currently familiar with and the creation of the Baduanjin, King Jungjo (r.1776–1800) of the Chosun dynasty (1392–1910) commissioned Duk Moo Lee, Dong Soo Pak, and Je Ga Park, three statesmen, to compile a comprehensive, illustrated manual of martial arts that came to be known as the Muye Dobo Tongji. Written in 1790 and reflecting combat tactics native to the nation that would soon be called Korea, this broad treatment included additional military applications unique to neighboring China and Japan, both sworn enemies of the state at one time or another and guilty of brutal invasions. Learning from past defeats, the Chosun leadership possibly siphoned wisdom from The Art of War where its author, the scholar Sun Tzu suggested, “Know your enemy, know yourself. One hundred battles, one hundred victories.”
Muye Dobo Tongji. Courtesy of Richard Chun.
The Muye Dobo Tongji, comprised of four discreet sections, was a compendium of two previously written volumes, each highlighting specific elements of martial skill. The first, entitled the Muye Jebo, was published following the Japanese invasion of the Korean peninsula led by Toyotomi Hideyoshi in 1592. During this period, King Sunjo (r.1567–1608) directed Han Kyo, a military officer who had received weapons training from the Chinese, to document several fighting methods primarily featuring the sword, shield, and spear. Later, during the reign of King Youngjo (r.1724–1776), the Muye Jebo was appended to include significantly more sword techniques and renamed the Muye Shinbo. It is important to note that this canon contained a chapter dedicated to kwon bop, the fist-fighting method championed by the sunbae of ancient Koguryo. Interestingly, the authors suggested learning kwon bop as a prelude to weapons training since empty hand techniques laid the basis for armed practice.
The use of kwon bop (Chinese: chuan fa; Japanese: kenpo) as a martial tradition can be traced to a primitive era in Korean history categorized as the Three Kingdoms Period. Koguryo (37 BC–AD 668), the largest of the three, was founded along the Yalu River and encompassed an area with land holdings reaching far up into Manchuria and what is now North Korea. Due to its close proximity to China, the kingdom was in constant conflict with its imperialistic neighbor. In answer to a continual fear of invasion, the ruling aristocracy established a warrior corps that came to be known as the sunbae, literally translated as “senior” or “respected one.” Sunbae philosophy emphasized a deep belief in the gods who created the universe coupled with a strong will to defend the country against all odds. These warriors, selected from all rungs of society, practiced kwon bop, dressed in black velvet robes, and were required to shave their heads. The sunbae hierarchal structure was such that anyone with high aptitude and an ambitious character could obtain superior rank. Using this select group of soldiers as a blueprint for its own design, the tiny kingdom of Silla (57 BC–AD 935) would later create a similar warrior corps, a military fraternity known as the hwarang, whose legendary triumphs would echo down through the halls of Korean martial arts history for generations to come. Unlike the sunbae, however, members of the hwarang, practicing hwarang-do or the “way of the flowering manhood,” were composed of elite warriors exclusively drawn from noble stock. Aside from their knowledge of kwon bop, these youthful soldiers were distinguished from other combat troops by virtue of their unique holistic training in archery, music, poetry, equestrian skills, and the Eastern philosophical paradigms of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism. The kwon bop of the sunbae and hwarang was documented in the Muye Dobo Tongji.
Following the reign of the Chosun rulers, the Muye Dobo Tongji lay dormant for over a century until 1957 when it was rediscovered in a Seoul library by Hwang Kee, founder of the famed Moo Duk Kwan, while pursuing a detailed study of historical documents pertaining to the martial arts of Korea. This startling cache of ancient wisdom inspired Hwang Kee to develop Hwa Sun, a hyung based on the illustrated kwon bop formal exercises documented in the text. Originally intended to be performed by two people, Hwa Sun or “pure flower form,” is unique from other hyung in that it includes a number of open hand slaps performed while striking one’s own shoulder, hip, foot, and shin.
From the evidence at hand, it becomes abundantly clear that empty hand fighting arts, in conjunction with their associated formal exercises, did not originate in any single country but developed naturally across continents as various cultures adapted to cope with the dangers posed by increased trade and human aggression accompanied by imperialist desire. Still, the need to practice choreographed sequences of prearranged combat tactics in a relatively relaxed environment devoid of mayhem and death was apparently universal.
In his book, Moving Zen: Karate as a Way to Gentleness, Shotokan karateka C. W. Nicol describes formal exercise practice as “a dynamic dance; a battle without bloodshed or vanquished.” He further goes on to say “We are somehow touching the warrior ancestry of all humanity,” and “Of all the training in karate, none is more vigorous, demanding or exhilarating than the sincere performance of kata.” From this we can see that poomsae training, if approached in a traditional manner, not only cultivates defensive and offensive proficiency coupled with ki development, but establishes a profound link with masters of the past who clearly did not practice formal exercises merely for physical fitness. Instead, they were practiced as a means of cataloging hard-earned martial skills often fostered on the field of battle or in the supercharged atmosphere of some distant training hall for the benefit of students across the centuries. Consequently, we state emphatically that without poomsae, tul, or hyung, there is no taekwondo.
The Influence of Korean History on Original Koryo and Koryo Poomsae
Since the technical focus of this book centers on Original Koryo and Koryo poomsae, it is clearly worth recognizing the historical record from which the primary philosophical characteristics of these contemporary poomsae are drawn. Subsequently, let us continue our literary journey through Asian history by paying a visit to Koryo, the ancient land from which these poomsae share a common name.
The poetic interpretation of Koryo (918–1392), a shortened version of Koguryo, translates as “land of high mountains and sparkling streams.” This colorful description assumes majestic proportions when one ventures across the rugged terrain of present day Korea, the national name derived from the word Koryo. The dynastic succession, established by General Wang Kon in AD 918, gave birth to a country that endured for 475 years following the United Silla era and the triumphs of the hwarang. Considered at its pinnacle to be one of the most advanced civilizations on earth, this period in Korean history represents a time of growth and reorganization for the emerging nation-state. Wang Kon, adept in the native martial art of subak descended from a dominant clan of seafarers located in Seongdo, the site of present-day Kaesong. It was here partially based on geomancy that he chose to build his capital, once assuming kingship. A devout Buddhist later known as King T’aejo, Wang Kon ruled with compassion and demonstrated remarkable mercy over vanquished adversaries. Elevated by the conviction that he shared a direct link to the kings of Koguryo, he legitimized the throne by marrying a Silla princess. His deep-seated ideological views reflected a belief that Koryo’s long term well-being was based on the mercy of Buddha.
With Wang Kon as their predecessor, thirty-seven rulers lauded over wondrous advances that became the hallmark of the Koryo dynasty. Restructuring, reforms, and technological advances were seen in all areas of society, including agriculture, education, taxation, and diplomatic relations with foreign powers. The newly centralized government, the first to create a truly unified national identity, was administered by bureaucrats and scholars who rose to positions of power dependent not on birth as before, but through a series of civil service examinations. A university and local area schools were established in answer to a revitalized thirst for knowledge. In 1234, moveable metal type was invented, preceding Guttenberg by 200 years. Celadon porcelain developed by Koryo artisans, noted for its colorful green, blue, and white glaze, to this day captures the attention of collectors. Thought to have been influenced by Song pottery, the intricacy of Koryo ceramics remained unmatched in large part due to its complex inlays. Specimens of this unique Korean craftwork exist today in major museums throughout the world. Alongside these innovations, trade flourished with merchants swapping gold, silver, and ginseng, among others commodities, for Chinese silk. Moreover, in opposition to customs that were later institutionalized during the Chosun era (1392–1910) and upheld until the twenty-first century, the Koryo citizenry embraced a relatively strong matrilineal system. Women were permitted rights of inheritance and widows granted the right to remarry. But perhaps one of the greatest legacies of this time was the creation of the Tripitaka Koreana, the oldest known error-free version of the Buddhist canon consisting of 52,382,960 characters. Believing that the power of prayer would turn back the Mongol invasion, Buddhist monks undertook the task of engraving over 80,000 wooden plates containing the most sacred of scriptures. Blocks of birch imported from surrounding islands were treated extensively with seawater and aged for three years prior to carving. Requiring 16 years to complete, the Tripitaka Koreana, or Palman Daejanggyeong, now resides in the safety of Haeinsa Temple built in AD 802, located on Kaya Mountain in Kyeongsang Province.
Even as Confucianism held sway over the political structure of Koryo, Zen (Seon) Buddhism remained the nation’s prime philosophical and religious paradigm. As threats from the north increased, Buddhist monks, ignoring the fact that core doctrine forbade the taking of life, nonetheless took up arms for the purpose of protecting monastic holdings while actively participating militarily in the interest of national defense. Defeated several times at the hands of Jurchen invaders, who were reinforced by the nomadic Khitan tribes, strategic necessity warranted the creation of an elite cadre outside the structure of the armed forces known as the P’yomuban or the Extraordinary Military Corps. This entity was composed of three divisions: elite, youthful warriors made up the Sin’gigun; the Sinbugun, which included peasants supplemented by rank and file soldiers; and lastly, the Hangmagun, comprised of battle-trained Buddhist monks fighting under the banner of the Subdue Demon Corps credited with repulsing the Jurchen invaders. Aside from these Buddhist-based and regular army troops, it is purported that clandestine martial arts training took place behind palace doors. Supposedly influenced by ancient fighting techniques, Royal Court Martial Arts or Koong Joong Mu Sool was taught and the common folk were excluded.
Tripitaka Koreana. Courtesy of Korea Tourism Organization.
In large part due to its strategic location and the border it shared with its northern neighbors, Koryo sovereignty was constantly challenged. By 1044, a massive defensive structure in the form of a great wall had been built extending from the Amnok River, now the Yalu, to Hamhung on the east coast of what is today North Korea. Nevertheless, massive structures such as these could not defend against domestic strife. In 1170, following a military coup lead by General Ch’ung-hon Ch’oe, civilian control of the government ended with power being consolidated within the Ch’oe family essentially reducing the king to a figurehead. Yet, over time, it became clear that the military dictatorship was incapable of providing economic security, resulting in the reinstatement of a civilian bureaucracy. Furthermore, the ongoing struggle for internal stability was radically compounded in 1232 by the Mongol invasion. Following the capture of the capitol at Seongdo, the royalty sought refuge on the island of Kanghwa-do, effectively establishing a government-in-exile within its own borders. Spared by the fact that the Mongol cavalry feared crossing the waters between the island and the mainland, a distance of only a few short miles, the nation was nonetheless mercilessly reduced to a vassal state. Although the Koryo military continued to offer significant resistance, imperialistic forces ravaged the nation leaving a path of devastation and hardship in its wake. With opposition waning, the king finally sued for peace and in 1270 once again returned to the throne.
For the remainder of the thirteenth century, Koryo sovereignty continued to decline. The royal bloodline became intermingled through marriage with that of the occupiers, resulting in the monarchy having little sway over domestic and foreign affairs. Militarily, the forced alliance between the Koryo and Mongol armies was destined to create an armada that persistently challenged the ill-prepared samurai of Japan. In 1281, with a combined force of 3,500 Chinese ships bolstered by 900 Koryo vessels and tens of thousands of soldiers, the joint armies were well on their way to conquering the outnumbered Kamakura shogunate at Kyushu when a punishing typhoon ensued. Interestingly, the apparent consequences of this key battle largely depend, as in most cases of historical conveyance, on which of the combatants relates the tale.6 Contrary to claims made by Japanese historians, Koryo naval tacticians, anticipating the foul weather, commanded a return to port with a marginal loss of ten to fifteen percent of the fleet. Conversely, local Japanese legend has it that Buddhist monk Il Yuk, observing the advancing ships from afar, sat chanting and, with each recitation of his mantra, whipped the waves into a frenzied tempest of monumental proportions. This “divine wind” or kamikaze caused the ships to break up, ultimately devastating the Koryo and Mongol forces and placing victory in the hands of the Japanese.
A preoccupation with the emerging Ming later siphoned off Mongol resources permitting a modicum of independence for the Koryo populace during the 1300s. This minor reprieve from total dominance was nevertheless offset by coastal incursions from Japanese pirates and far-reaching land reforms that struck at the very heart of the agrarian culture. Buddhist institutions, having merged politics with its status as a state religion, along with the landed aristocracy, fell prey to this restructuring. However, the final nail in Koryo’s coffin was hammered in by the influence of Neo-Confucianism.7 Strict ethical values riding on the back of conservative doctrine eroded the supremacy of the nobility and that of abusive Buddhist monks. Once a bastion of strength, the power of the aristocracy in tandem with that of religious leaders began to crumble.
By the late 1300s, the virtuous effects of Buddhism had spun out of control, poisoning the upper echelons of Koryo government with potential leaders required to become Buddhist monks as a prerequisite to kingship. Against this backdrop of social upheaval rose Song Gye Yi, an illustrious general who was destined to unalterably transform the complexion of the nation. The last of the Koryo monarchs, against the will of the people, ordered Yi to mount an attack on Ming forces garrisoned in Manchuria. With the unanimous support of the general populace, Yi refused, lying siege to the capital instead. The siege resulted in the ousting of the unpopular ruler and the establishment by Song Gye Yi of the Chosun Dynasty, the most enduring nation-state in Korean history.
Given the deteriorating cultural imbalance that inevitably afflicts failing nations in their waning years, Koryo history nonetheless was replete with innovation and virtue. From the artistic originality of Koryo celadon to the sacred encryption of sacred sutras in the Tripitaka Koreana, from the steadfast conviction that Buddhist doctrine would by mystical design steer the nation to prosperity to the skill of Koryo shipwrights responsible for later shaping the kobukson or turtle boats of Admiral Yi Sun Shin, Koryo heritage left an indelible stamp on Asian history that centuries later would be memorialized in two poomsae of a native martial art that would come to be known as taekwondo.
Foreign Influences on Taekwondo Formal Exercises
In order to fully understand the complete history, philosophy, and martial applications of taekwondo poomsae, hyung, or tul, one must openly, and without bias, take into account the role that Okinawan/Japanese kata and Chinese taolu played in their creation8. As we have seen, formal exercises, regardless of pedigree, were not created in a vacuum; cultures borrowed heavily from one another with applications morphing from nation to nation according to martial necessity and geography. Subsequently, strings connecting to the creation of contemporary taekwondo formal exercises can be traced back to the fourteenth century when an alliance forged between China and Okinawa resulted in a great infusion of Chinese culture. In 1429, the immigration of Chinese nationals adept in the art of chuan fa/kenpo greatly influenced the native combative styles of the island kingdom. Many of the kata practiced in the various styles of karate today still bear the names of the Chinese practitioners who inspired them. The towns of Shuri and Naha, bolstered by this expansion in trade, would come to be known for the martial systems that they would eventually spawn. Initially, before karate, there existed Shuri-te, Naha-te, Tomari-te, and todi, or “China hand.” Later, as Okinawa moved from a provincial to a regional economy, relations were established between Indonesia, Japan, and Korea.
During the latter part of the fifteenth century, an event occurred that would have a pronounced effect on the practice of empty hand self-defense. King Sho Shin of Okinawa forbid the ownership of weapons by civilians and required that all nobles relocate to within the shadow of Shuri Castle. This prohibition on arms caused the citizens to find alternative methods of self-protection and since combat skill garnered favor with the king, many in the nobility practiced empty hand martial arts.
Following the successful invasion of Okinawa by Japan in 1609, formal exercises took on additional importance. Driven by a continued ban on arms, the citizenry had learned to employ farm and household items as weapons. Oars, pitchforks, and scythes, which would later evolve into specialized martial arts weapons such as the Japanese bo and sai, found their way into the secretive practice of kata.
In 1868, under the Meiji Restoration, Japan to the north of the Ryukyu archipelago began to radically alter its society and transitioned from feudalism to a system of democracy, affecting all under its imperialistic umbrella. In the process, much in the way of tradition was obfuscated, revolutionized with the inclusion of martial arts training that was soon to be transformed from a secretive, necessary component of military combat to a vehicle for promoting health and morality in schoolchildren.9 Suddenly the native defensive arts, devoid of their battlefield tactics, took on the complexion of a therapeutic pursuit wrapped in sportive overtones. Much of this was in response to a defining visit by Shintaro Ogawa, then commissioner of schools for Kagoshima Prefecture, who observed a martial arts demonstration during his stay. Upon his return from Okinawa, he extolled the virtues of karate in a written report to his superiors at the Japanese Ministry of Education. Subsequently, in 1901, Yasutsune “Anko” Itosu (1830–1915) in conjunction with Yasutsune Azato (1828–1906), who also taught martial arts locally, introduced karate into the mainstream curriculum of the Shuri Jinjo Elementary School. Later, it was introduced throughout the Okinawan educational system as a whole with the long-range goal of cultivating physical fitness and character enrichment in adolescents. This worthy objective was partially accomplished by practicing sanitized versions of the Pinan (Peaceful Mind) kata created by Itosu. It is widely accepted that the composition of the five Pinan kata was influenced by Chaing-Nan, a formal exercise taught to Itosu by a Chinese martial artist living in the Tomari region. However, practitioners of Kobayashi Shorin ryu claim that the Pinan set is derived from Bassai, Kusanku, or Kosokun. Since, at least for schoolchildren, self-defense was not the prime focus of training, the practical applications of techniques within the forms were intentionally masked in ambiguity or eliminated altogether. This method of instruction represented a major shift in formal exercise training that would have ramifications far into the future. Criticized for diluting the fundamental purpose of kata, and thus karate in general since forms remained the essence of the art, Itosu later wrote, “You must decide whether your kata is for cultivation of health or for its practical use.” He further advised adult students to “Always practice kata with its practical use in mind.”
Grandmaster Richard Chun (left) and Master Doug Cook. Courtesy of Henry Smith.
Yet, a further endorsement that kata represented a central pillar of karatedo doctrine awaited the appearance of Gichen Funakoshi (1868–1957), a prematurely-born young man of unremarkable stature who as a youth traveled the back roads between Naha and Shuri by lantern light to study with both Azato and Itosu sub rosa. Funakoshi’s required repetition of a single kata under the vigilant eye of Azato day in and day out, often for months on end to the point of humiliation, clearly instilled an appreciation for the formal exercises that he would carry across a lifetime.10
The future founder of Shotokan karatedo, Funakoshi decided to become a school teacher early on, a fact that did not thrill his parents who, claiming ancestral ties to the samurai, entertained higher expectations for their son. Surprisingly, he did not bring his karate to Japan until the early 1920s while in his early fifties. Initially on a mission to demonstrate his art at the All Japan Athletic Exhibition in Tokyo, he never permanently returned to his homeland, living instead in a humble boarding house occupied by Okinawan students. To make ends meet, he worked at the residence cooking, gardening, and sorting mail. Finally, in the summer of 1922, he began receiving students, very few at first, while teaching on a regular basis at a local lecture hall. The surroundings and instruction were spartan at best; there were no uniforms or belts and the performance of simple kata dominated the training. Yet the seeds of Japanese karate, along with its kata, were now firmly planted.
Through the concerted efforts of Funakoshi and his third son Gigo (1906–1945), who emigrated to Tokyo in 1923 at age seventeen, significant changes were made to the traditional methods of teaching Okinawan karate. Mimicking the system of belt advancement first established by judo’s founder Jigoro Kano (1860–1938) in the late 1880s, Funakoshi adopted a similar system of dan/kyu ranking, consisting of color belts and an ascending level of black belts. Furthermore, in an attempt to simplify the pronunciation of the Pinan kata, Funakoshi renamed them Heian while altering certain prescribed stances and kicks. Oddly, Itosu did not transmit the Pinan kata to Funakoshi prior to his departure from Okinawa, a process left to Osaka-based Shito ryu founder, Kenwa Mabuni. Likewise, Gigo contributed much in the way of technical expertise to his father’s style of karatedo. Alternatively known as Yoshitaka, he is credited with the creation of ritual one-step sparring and the three Taikyoku, or Kihon, kata that virtually mirror the Kicho patterns used today in traditional taekwondo. The Taikyoku set was generally used as a precursor to the more complex Heian kata.
In the wake of the Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923, much of Tokyo was destroyed putting a hold on daily routine, karate instruction included. While Funakoshi’s dojo escaped nature’s wrath, many of his students had perished in the devastating fires that ensued. Nevertheless, as the city began to rebuild and enrollment again expanded, it quickly became apparent that the school was outgrowing its aging training facility. In 1935, with karate becoming ever more popular particularly among the aristocracy, a group of supporters raised sufficient funds to construct a new karate dojo, the first ever in all of Japan. Thus rose from the ashes, the Shotokan, taking its name in tribute to the pseudonym used by Funakoshi as a child. The Shotokan or “school of waving pines”, epitomized the crystallization of Funakoshi’s dreams.11 In short order, with war blooming, the training hall began to overflow with eager young men soon to be conscripted. Far too often, Funakoshi found himself standing alone in the center of his dojo, offering up prayers for his fallen students. Then, tragedy struck. In 1945, during an air raid, the Shotokan was decimated in a rain of bombs. Although Funakoshi remained unscathed, what had been built with promise and generosity was no more. Compound this with the fact that Gigo succumbed to tuberculosis in the spring of the same year and one can only imagine the extent of emotional turmoil experienced by Funakoshi during this fateful period. Still, Funakoshi persevered, teaching and writing, albeit with the assistance of his instructors, far into his 80s.
Certainly, other qualified masters were concurrently forging their brand of karate in Japan coupled with their unique kata. Chief among these was Kanken Toyama (1888–1956) of Shudokan fame who, while in Okinawa, studied alongside Funakoshi under Itosu for eighteen years. Although an elementary school teacher by profession, Toyama augmented his martial arts training with lessons in chuan fa while living with his family in Taiwan. His instruction exposed him to nampa, a southern-style Chinese martial art from which the spear hand strike (pyeon sonkeut chigi) is alleged to have evolved. Subsequently, upon his return to Tokyo in 1930, he opened his first dojo, teaching a mixture of Itosu’s Shorin ryu karate and chuan fa, although never laying claim to the development of a separate style. Later, in 1946, Toyama taught at Nihon University and founded the All Japan Karate-Do Federation with hopes of consolidating the varying styles of Okinawan and Japanese karate beneath a single umbrella.
