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Motivation and inspiration both contribute to an individual’s personal drive or desire to do something. As such, the motivation and inspiration of students is a topic of discussion among educators at all levels. Over the years, there has been a chorus of calls to recognize the positive effects of motivating and inspiring students in the classroom. Consider the following statements about the need for motivation and inspiration.

▸ “Good teachers can inspire students, and effective teachers continue to hone this skill by improving their understanding of student psychology and the culture of the classroom and school” (Colwell & Hewitt, 2016, p. 5).

▸ “In a culture obsessed with measuring talent and ability, we often overlook the important role of inspiration. Inspiration awakens us to new possibilities by allowing us to transcend our ordinary experiences and limitations. Inspiration propels a person from apathy to possibility, and transforms the way we perceive our own capabilities. Inspiration may sometimes be overlooked because of its elusive nature…. But as recent research shows, inspiration can be activated, captured, and manipulated, and it has a major effect on important life outcomes” (Kaufman, 2011).

▸ “When performance in mathematics was predicted and prior achievement was controlled, motivation but not intelligence contributed to the prediction. Since mathematics performance is often thought to be highly cognitive in nature, the importance of motivation is most interesting. This result is especially important considering the potential malleability of motivation via educational processes. Compared to intelligence or more specific abilities, motivation may be more easily influenced by situational factors, such as salient classroom goals…. Thus, when teachers aim at improving students’ performance, enhancing their motivation might be as important as the conveyance of knowledge” (Steinmayr & Spinath, 2009, p. 88).

▸ “Some teachers, those we might call our great teachers, have a knack for moving students up … motivation levels…. Somehow these teachers are able to inspire students to work harder than they were initially inclined to work…. They are the ones who elicit such comments from students as

▸ I liked coming to class. I hated being absent.

▸ She turned us on to history and made it come alive.

▸ I never worked so hard in my life.

▸ I didn’t expect to like that class, but I really did.

We might reasonably conclude, therefore, that it is possible to inspire students to become more fully active learners. Clearly, some teachers manage to do it” (Harmin, 2006, pp. 4–5).

▸ “Research on student motivation seems to be central to research in learning and teaching contexts. Researchers interested in basic questions about how and why some students seem to learn and thrive in school contexts, while other students seem to struggle to develop the knowledge and cognitive resources to be successful academically, must consider the role of motivation” (Pintrich, 2003, p. 667).

▸ “In terms of education, it has become ever more apparent that … intrinsic motivation … leads to the types of outcomes that are beneficial both to individuals and to society” (Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan, 1991, p. 342).

▸ “Do we as teachers sell inspiration short? We know what inspiration, or the lack of it, means in our own lives. Why do we let ourselves forget that our pupils are made as we are and that they are not always moved to their best efforts by our exhortation, our fervent persuasion, our nagging and scolding” (Spitzer, 1951, p. 136)?

Clearly, educators have long recognized the importance of motivation and inspiration. However, just how to evoke them in students is neither a simple nor obvious task.

Motivation and inspiration were strong themes in the book Awaken the Learner (Scott & Marzano, 2014), which posited that K–12 schools primarily focus on knowledge and skills to the detriment of their students. The current education system fails to take advantage of the vast array of available resources and strategies related to motivation and inspiration; this may be due to a systemic failure to recognize the positive influence that these strategies can have on students, both academically and personally. This book is designed to make some of these resources readily available to K–12 teachers by providing a comprehensive model of the nature of motivation and inspiration as well as specific strategies to elicit them in the classroom.

Hierarchy of Needs and Goals

A prevalent model that researchers use to explain human motivation involves the pursuit of specific needs and goals. That is, motivation and inspiration occur when we perceive that an activity or opportunity will help us meet a specific need or goal. Conversely, they do not occur when we perceive we will not be able to accomplish a specific need or goal. From this perspective, understanding human needs and goals provides a window to the inner workings of human motivation and inspiration.

Many discussions of needs and goals assume a hierarchic structure (Alderfer, 1969; Elliot & Church, 1997; McClelland, 1987; Vallerand, 1997, 2000; Vallerand & Ratelle, 2002). The model presented here is based on Abraham Maslow’s well-known hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1943, 1954). The hierarchy originally had five levels: (1) physiology, (2) safety, (3) belonging, (4) esteem within a community, and (5) self-actualization. Later versions (Koltko-Rivera, 2006; Maslow, 1969, 1979) included a sixth level: connection to something greater than self. The six levels of needs and goals are arranged into a hierarchy because each level is generally not available without fulfilling the needs related to the levels below it. Figure 1.1 depicts the hierarchic organization of all six levels of the model.

Figure 1.1: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and goals.

To better understand the hierarchic nature of the needs and goals in figure 1.1, consider the topmost levels, which involve connection to something greater than self and self-actualization. These levels can only be accessed with a solid foundation of the levels below them—that is, they only occur in individuals whose needs related to physiology, safety, belonging, and esteem within a community have been met.

It is important to note that while Maslow directly referenced needs and only alluded to goals, both terms make sense. We use both terms somewhat interchangeably, though it is probably more accurate to think of lower levels of the hierarchy as needs and the higher levels as goals. However, there is certainly no clear-cut dividing line between the two.

The extent to which students are motivated and inspired in a particular classroom is a function of the extent to which the classroom attends to the needs and goals in the hierarchy—particularly needs and goals related to the top two levels. Metaphorically, one might say that students in any given situation are constantly asking themselves the following questions.

▸ Level 1: “Am I physiologically comfortable in this situation?”

▸ Level 2: “Does this situation make me feel safe?”

▸ Level 3: “Does this situation make me feel like others accept me?”

▸ Level 4: “Does this situation make me feel like I am valued?”

▸ Level 5: “Does this situation make me feel as though I am living up to my potential?”

▸ Level 6: “Does this situation make me feel like I am a part of something important?”

To illustrate how this affects motivation, imagine students in a typical classroom. If they cannot answer “Yes” to the level 1 and level 2 questions, their thoughts will be focused on basic physical needs related to physiology and safety rather than what is occurring in class. If students cannot answer “Yes” to the level 3 and level 4 questions, it is probably accurate to say that the students might be able to attend to what is occurring in class but are probably disengaged to a significant degree. Schools tend to focus on issues related to the bottom four levels, which deal with foundational human needs. However, these levels do little to enhance students’ motivation and inspiration, which manifest in levels 5 and 6 of the hierarchy. This is depicted in figure 1.2.

As depicted in figure 1.2, when a situation meets our needs related to physiology, safety, belonging, and esteem within a community, we are engaged and attentive. Inspiration and motivation, however, occur only when students have the opportunity to meet goals related to self-actualization and connection to something greater than self. Stated differently, students must answer “Yes” to the level 5 and level 6 questions as well as the questions for levels 1 through 4 to be truly motivated and inspired in class. Thus, effectively motivating and inspiring students relies on a thorough understanding of all the levels of the hierarchy. Here, we present a brief description of the research and theory behind each level, beginning with the top level of the hierarchy.

Connection to Something Greater Than Self

Connection to something greater than self represents the topmost level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Theoretically, this is the highest level of human motivation and inspiration. While not articulated in Maslow’s (1943, 1954) original hierarchy of needs, he made reference to this sixth level in later writings (1969, 1979). To differentiate connection to something greater than self from self-actualization, Maslow defined needs and goals related to self-actualization as an individual’s inclination to fulfill his or her own potential. Needs and goals related to a connection to something greater than self represented an individual’s desire for a higher purpose and to help others move up the hierarchy of needs. In Maslow’s (1969) own words:

The fully developed (and very fortunate) human being, working under the best conditions tends to be motivated by values which transcend his self. They are not selfish anymore in the old sense of that term…. It has transcended the geographical limitations of the self. (p. 4)

Maslow was not the first person to articulate this difference. In Victor Frankl’s (1959/2006) famous work, Man’s Search for Meaning, he reflected upon the lessons learned during his time in Auschwitz during World War II and noted, “The true meaning of life is to be discovered in the world rather than within man or his own psyche” (p. 110). Frankl emphasized humans’ proclivity to seek a connection to something greater than self, and it is likely that Maslow’s creation of a sixth level of his hierarchy was influenced by Frankl’s work.

Figure 1.2: The hierarchy of goals as it relates to inspiration, motivation, engagement, and attention.

Regardless of its origins, Maslow (1969) called the state of feeling a connection to something greater than self transcendence, which he associated with a sensation of oneness with the world and moments of understanding outside of ordinary experience. As individuals repeatedly fulfill their goals at this level, they often also experience humility, wisdom, or a creative outpouring. Once individuals experience transcendence, they will attempt to prolong that state. However, only a small percent of the population ever truly sustains this connection over a long period of time; Mother Teresa, Mahatma Gandhi, and Martin Luther King Jr. might be considered examples of those who have. This is not to minimize the impact that brief experiences of connection to something greater than self can have on an individual. Indeed, even if they are rare or not sustained for long, we should seek out and cherish such moments when they occur.

Self-Actualization

Maslow (1943) defined needs and goals related to self-actualization as “the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming” (p. 382). In other words, they represent the desire to pursue self-identified goals. Goals related to self-actualization can be described as global motivators, as individuals will work tirelessly to achieve goals they have personally identified as important. Inherent in their definition, needs and goals related to self-actualization vary widely from individual to individual. For example, in order for one student to experience self-actualization, he may need to express himself creatively through visual art or music, whereas another student might be driven to reach her potential as an athlete. Regardless of the focus of the goals, all efforts to this end involve “the full use and exploitation of talents, capabilities, [and] potentialities” (Maslow, 1954, p. 150).

It is important to note that self-actualization marks a transition within Maslow’s hierarchy from needs and goals related to deficiency to those of personal growth. The lower four levels—(1) physiology, (2) safety, (3) belonging, and (4) esteem within a community—define needs an individual must meet in order to avoid negative physical or psychological sensations. On the other hand, needs and goals related to self-actualization and connection to something greater than self articulate an individual’s desire for personal growth. It is not coincidental that the goals at these higher levels also mark a shift from engagement and attention to inspiration and motivation, as shown in figure 1.2 (page 5).

Esteem Within a Community

Individuals’ esteem within a community is highly dependent on their own self-representations or self-concept—the way they think about themselves. Researchers generally distinguish between self-esteem, or “global self-representations,” and “specific representations, such as academic self-concept” (Peixoto & Almeida, 2010, p. 158). For example, a student’s academic self-concept could differ drastically from his athletic self-concept, as he might excel on the racetrack or baseball diamond but struggle during school hours. Students’ academic self-concepts can be even further divided: a student may have a high self-concept for her abilities in mathematics and science but a lower self-concept for her abilities related to language arts or history. These specific self-concepts contribute to students’ esteem as a whole. As Cynthia G. Scott, Gerald C. Murray, Carol Mertens, and E. Richard Dustin (1996) explained:

Both academically and interpersonally, students’ self-esteem is affected daily by evaluations not only from school personnel but also from peers and family members. Because of the multitude of academic and social roles that students assume, they must constantly evaluate and reevaluate their knowledge and skills and compare them to others. (pp. 286–287)

Thus, recognizing the various communities in which students regularly participate can be useful when trying to understand and meet their esteem needs.

Maslow (1943) postulated that esteem can emanate from two sources: (1) self-esteem and (2) esteem from others. Needs related to self-esteem, he posited, involve “the desire for strength, for achievement, for adequacy, for confidence in the face of the world, and for independence and freedom” (p. 381), while esteem from others involves a “desire for reputation or prestige … recognition, attention, importance or appreciation” (p. 382). It is important to note, however, that people tend to consider self-esteem a higher version of esteem derived from others, as esteem derived from others is “dependent on external validation,” which can “create stress, hostility, and conflict” (Crocker, 2002, p. 608).

As stated previously, esteem within a community is a type of deficiency motivation. When individuals’ esteem needs are not met, they will focus on fulfilling those needs before moving on to needs related to personal growth (self-actualization and connection to something greater than self). As such, regardless of whether esteem is derived from the self or from others, a sense of esteem is critical to confidence and, when underdeveloped, has been correlated with psychological issues such as depression (Sowislo & Orth, 2013).

Belonging

Needs and goals related to belonging drive the social behaviors of humans and compel us to seek out fulfilling, affectionate relationships with others. In order for belonging needs to be met, individuals’ relationships must be two-directional and elicit feelings of acceptance and connectedness.

The need to belong is so important that, when unfilled, it can have drastic negative effects on students’ mental and physical health. To illustrate, consider this letter from a student in Illinois:

As I started my 8th grade year, things got tougher. School got harder, friends got meaner, and I felt like there was no one I could talk to. Soon after that, I started cutting. It became a regular thing for me. Feel sad, grab scissors, feel better. (Rachel’s Challenge, 2015, p. 7)

Clearly, feelings of belonging (or the lack thereof) immediately affect the emotional health of students. When left unaddressed, such feelings can cause destructive behaviors, sometimes evolving into suicidal thoughts:

In my school, I’m known as the “loner,” the “emo;” people just don’t care enough to get to know me. I once dreamed, but the way I’ve been treated caused me to give up. This has had such a negative effect on me, I suffer from depression. I developed a plan for suicide and almost carried it through. (Rachel’s Challenge, 2015, p. 31)

The previous quotations are featured in Saved by a Story: Letters of Transformation and Hope, a book that compiles thank-you notes received by Rachel’s Challenge (2015). The booklet contains dozens of letters from students who, when their needs for belonging went unmet at school, physically harmed themselves, attempted suicide, or bullied other students. Once these students felt they belonged at school, their negative outlooks were transformed, as exemplified at the end of the letter from the student in Illinois:

I realized there are people who care about me, and people I care about. I realized that I could die tomorrow, and that I didn’t want to leave this world thinking I had no one. (Rachel’s Challenge, 2015, p. 7)

Such examples highlight the importance of a sense of belonging, particularly because meeting such needs mitigates negative mindsets that may contribute to students’ dangerous behaviors. In an analysis of previous research on the topic, Xin Ma (2003) found that a sense of belonging among students was positively related to the following factors.

▸ Engagement in class

▸ Persistence with difficult work

▸ Positive attitudes toward other racial-ethnic groups

▸ Students’ expectations of academic success

▸ Intrinsic interest in academic work

▸ Higher course grades

▸ Teachers’ ratings of students’ academic effort

The same study found that a sense of belonging was also negatively correlated with high school incompletion rates and student involvement with gangs, substance abuse, and delinquency.

Safety

Safety needs fall into the second-lowest level of the hierarchy. Safety, in this sense, can be defined as a feeling of order, fairness, and predictability that ultimately reduces or eliminates physical or emotional harm. In other words, after individuals’ physiological needs (level 1 of the hierarchy) are met, they will seek out spaces where they feel secure. Teachers should also note the difference between actual and perceived safety. Actual safety relates to the real or genuine danger that individuals might encounter, whereas perceived safety relates to people’s opinions about how safe they are. Regardless of whether students feel or actually are unsafe, the effect is the same: they will endeavor to meet their safety needs by trying to escape or reduce the real or imagined threat rather than focusing on academics (Maslow, 1943, 1954).

While some people would argue that U.S. schools are becoming less and less safe, research indicates otherwise. Schools are better equipped now than they have ever been to ensure students’ safety. Some have metal detectors at their entrances, and many have school resource officers. The total victimization rate for students between the ages of twelve and eighteen has decreased since 1992, as has the total number of student homicides per year (Robers, Zhang, Morgan, & Musu-Gillette, 2015). Furthermore, from 1995 to 2013, the percentage of students who feared going to school because they felt a threat of attack or harm decreased from 12 percent to 3 percent (Robers et al., 2015). In sum, most schools do a very good job of keeping their students physically safe and contributing to students’ perception of safety. Despite this, there is still work to be done. It is notable that in 2013, 5 percent of students avoided at least one activity or place during school hours because of a perceived threat to their safety (Robers et al., 2015).

Physiology

The lowest level of Maslow’s hierarchy involves the most basic of human needs related to physiological comfort. When unmet, the ability to focus on any of the higher levels of the hierarchy is inhibited. For example, if an individual is too hungry, thirsty, or tired, he or she must eat, drink, or sleep before focusing on anything else. From an evolutionary perspective, these needs ensure that an environment meets the minimum conditions for survival. Generally, schools do a fairly good job of providing for students’ physiological needs. Cafeterias provide sustenance, and school buildings are heated during the winter and often cooled during warmer months. Many schools have resource officers, administrators, and counselors who actively monitor students to ensure that their physiological needs are met and who work with students, parents, and outside entities when they are not.

Despite this attention, much of the scope of students’ physiological needs falls outside of the schools’ direct control. For example, in a survey of a thousand U.S. educators, three out of four public school teachers taught students who regularly came to school hungry, and four out of five of those educators identified the problem as recurring on at least a weekly basis (No Kid Hungry, 2015). Katherine M. Keyes, Julie Maslowsky, Ava Hamilton, and John Schulenberg (2015) found that eighth-grade and high school students get less sleep than their counterparts did years ago and that only around 14 percent of adolescents felt they got enough sleep each night. These statistics point to the frequency with which certain physiological needs go unmet among students, which in turn translates into behavioral or learning problems.

Research and Theory in Practice

The hierarchy of needs and goals presented in this chapter provides a framework K–12 educators can use to create schools and classrooms in which students are motivated and inspired. Chapters 2 through 7 each contain strategies related to a specific level of the hierarchy, with chapter 2 containing strategies related to the highest level of the hierarchy (connection to something greater than self) and chapter 7 containing strategies related to the lowest level (physiology). Each chapter ends with a section containing a summary of its strategies, general recommendations for implementation, and a vignette showing how the recommendations might manifest in a classroom. Teachers can use the strategies and recommendations for all the chapters together to ensure all students are not only engaged and attentive but also motivated and inspired during class. While this book presents a complete model for responding to students’ unmet needs at all levels of the hierarchy, teachers might choose to focus on one level of the hierarchy at a time, especially if they notice that their students need extra support at a particular level. To get a better sense of students’ needs across a school, the appendix (page 158) contains a free reproducible survey that schools can use to determine how effectively they address students’ needs at each level of the hierarchy.