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ОглавлениеSelf-actualization involves the pursuit of personally relevant goals. In this chapter, we address the following five aspects of self-actualization: (1) an understanding of self-actualization, (2) mental dispositions, (3) the growth mindset, (4) possible selves, and (5) personal goal setting.
An Understanding of Self-Actualization
The concept of self-actualization can be intimidating to students who are unfamiliar with the term. Teachers can initially introduce students to self-actualization by providing them with clear definitions; however, definitions can and should differ based on students’ ages. For example, with younger students, teachers might describe self-actualization as the act of deciding to do something and then doing it. In contrast, teachers of older students might define it as the identification and pursuit of goals that are personally beneficial and relevant to an individual. Once students become familiar with the concept, teachers can ask students to generate their own definitions. Teachers can also use specific characteristics of self-actualization to further deepen students’ understanding of the concept. Here, we discuss traits of self-actualization and peak experiences.
Traits of Self-Actualization
After defining self-actualization for students, teachers can explain that people who spend a significant amount of time engaged in self-actualizing behaviors tend to develop or exhibit certain traits. Maslow (1970) identified some of these traits, listed in table 3.1 (page 30).
Table 3.1: Maslow’s Traits of Self-Actualized People
| Trait | Description |
| Clear perception of reality | The self-actualized person judges others accurately and is capable of tolerating uncertainty and ambiguity. |
| Acceptance of self and others | Self-actualizers accept themselves as they are and are not defensive. They have little guilt, shame, or anxiety. |
| Natural and spontaneous reactions | Self-actualizers are spontaneous in both thought and behavior. |
| Focus on problems rather than self | Self-actualizers focus on problems outside themselves. |
| Need privacy; tendency to be detached | Although self-actualizers enjoy others, they do not mind solitude and sometimes seek it. |
| Autonomy | Self-actualizers are relatively independent of their culture and environment, but they do not go against convention just for the sake of being different. |
| Continued freshness of appreciation | Self-actualizers are capable of fresh, spontaneous, and nonstereotyped appreciation of objects, events, and people. They appreciate the basic pleasures of life. |
| Social interest | Self-actualizers have feelings of identification with and sympathy and affection for others. |
| Interpersonal relations | Self-actualizers do on occasion get angry, but they do not bear long-lasting grudges. Their relationships with others are few but deep and meaningful. |
| Democratic character structure | Self-actualizers show respect for all people, regardless of race, creed, income level, and so on. |
| Sense of humor | Self-actualizers have a sense of humor that is both philosophical and nonhostile. |
| Creativeness | Self-actualizers are original, inventive, expressive, perceptive, and spontaneous in everyday life. They are able to see things in new ways. |
| Nonconformity | Self-actualizers fit into society, but they are independent of it and do not blindly comply with all its demands. They are open to new experiences. |
Source: Adapted from Insel & Roth, 2012; Maslow, 1970.
Students can analyze the characteristics in table 3.1 and discuss how these traits may contribute to the successful pursuit of personally relevant goals. Guiding questions for such discussions might be:
▸ Why do you think self-actualized individuals manifest these traits?
▸ Which traits do you think are the most important? Which traits do you think are the least important?
▸ Choose a trait. Can you give an example of someone you know or have heard of who embodies this trait?
▸ Which of these traits do you exhibit? Which ones don’t you exhibit?
Alternatively, teachers can ask students to identify such traits by thinking about the characteristics of people whom they consider to be self-actualized. Teachers can do this using the following four-step process.
1. Identify candidates for self-actualization.
2. Research candidates.
3. Identify candidates’ traits.
4. Generate a class list of traits.
We discuss each step in the following sections.
Identify Candidates for Self-Actualization
In order to identify traits of self-actualization, teachers should first have students select people they believe are self-actualized (at least to some degree). As students consider individuals who frequently engage in self-actualizing behaviors, they may find that their candidates fall into categories—for example, candidates who are successful or well known in their fields, candidates who are particularly satisfied with their lives, or candidates who have accomplished extraordinary or difficult feats. These categories themselves can spark lively discussions around the outcomes of self-actualization. Teachers can also remind students that self-actualization makes us feel that we are developing into all we are capable of being. Consequently, individuals may be successful in specific areas of life but may not experience the sense of fulfillment that often accompanies self-actualization. For example, a lawyer may be successful in his profession, but this may not make him feel as though he is living up to his full potential. If the lawyer has a desire to express himself creatively, he may need to develop his skills as a writer or painter to truly experience self-actualization.
With such discussions as a backdrop, students can identify their candidates for self-actualization. Teachers can provide students with parameters for the candidates they choose, such as whether or not students should be personally acquainted with their candidates or whether candidates can be celebrities, deceased, and so on. Teachers could also provide students with example candidates, like those listed in table 3.2. Visit MarzanoResources.com/reproducibles for information about other candidates for self-actualization.
Table 3.2: Example Self-Actualization Candidates
| Candidate | Description |
| Erik Weihenmayer | Despite losing his vision at age thirteen, Weihenmayer became involved in many extreme sports including paragliding, skiing, and mountain climbing. He won many awards for his accomplishments and his persistent spirit. He was the first blind man to summit Mount Everest and was one of only one hundred people in the world who has climbed the highest mountain on each continent (Adversity Advantage, n.d.). |
| Sandra Day O’Connor | O’Connor grew up in rural Arizona and had to leave home as a child to receive her education. She went on to attend Stanford University, where she studied economics, and then enrolled in Stanford Law. After graduating, she had difficulty finding a job because, at that time, no private firms in California were willing to hire female lawyers. She eventually started her own firm, served as a state senator, and became the first woman appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court (Oyez at IIT Chicago-Kent College of Law, 2016). |
| Langston Hughes | Hughes was an innovative writer and one of the first jazz poets. He fought against racism and social inequality and became one of the most well-known and prolific African American writers of the 20th century. His determination was apparent in his writing process as well. Four drafts of his poem “Ballad of Booker T.” are archived in the Library of Congress; each draft is heavily annotated, and Hughes made major changes from one to the next before publishing a final draft (Wesson, 2011). |
| Robert Goddard | Known as the father of modern rocketry, Goddard was a physicist and inventor who built the first liquid-fueled rocket. He studied rockets extensively and, in 1919, published work that suggested that rockets could be used for space flight. This claim received a great deal of ridicule and backlash, but Goddard trusted his experiments and calculations and continued to improve rocket technology. His work directly enabled humanity’s exploration of Earth’s atmosphere and outer space (Garner, 2016). |
| Bethany Hamilton | Hamilton began surfing as a young child and dreamed of becoming a professional surfer. When she was thirteen, she was attacked by a shark and lost her left arm. Only a month after this traumatic event, she returned to surfing. She continued to compete and accomplished her goal of turning pro at the age of seventeen. As of 2014, Hamilton was a national champion surfer, as well as an author and public speaker (Soul Surfer, 2015). |
Research Candidates
After identifying their candidates, students can research and write brief biographies of them in their own words. If candidates are alive and available, students might try to arrange interviews with them to get a better sense of their accomplishments. To illustrate what a biography might look like, a student who selected Eleanor Roosevelt as a candidate might write the following description.
Eleanor Roosevelt was born in 1884 and eventually married Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the thirty-second president of the United States. Contrary to the previous expectation that first ladies were to embody quiet elegance without much participation in politics, as first lady, Eleanor Roosevelt reimagined the role of the wife of the president. However, this was not a surprise to many who knew Eleanor growing up, as she had always been active in politics and involved in humanitarian efforts. Throughout her tenure as first lady (and after), Eleanor Roosevelt’s actions showed a desire for equality by breaking down barriers that restricted women. Although traditionally women were not allowed to attend White House press conferences, Eleanor Roosevelt not only held her own press conferences but also limited her first press conference to only female reporters. Due to her husband’s diagnosis of polio, she often was referred to as “the President’s eyes, ears, and legs” and used this position to pursue her own agendas related to the rights of the underprivileged and underrepresented. After her husband died, Eleanor Roosevelt did not retreat from the public eye, unlike many first ladies before her. Rather, she served as chair of the Human Rights Commission in the United Nations and drafted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which is still in use today. After serving in the UN, she went on to fill multiple leadership roles in organizations and committees dealing in a wide range of humanitarian topics (Biography.com, n.d.; Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum, n.d.).
Students can also present their findings to small groups or to the class as a whole (once completed).
Identify Candidates’ Traits
During this step, students hypothesize about various traits they believe their candidates possess. Students use previously gathered biographic information to provide evidence for their assertions about their candidates. To aid in this process, teachers may first want to provide examples to students about what appropriate traits are and how to provide evidence for them. For example, a teacher might explain that talented artists are often unconcerned with what others think of their work, as they recognize the intrinsic value of their art or find satisfaction in the process of making it. From this, the teacher could then identify nonconformity, creativity, and intrinsic satisfaction as traits related to self-actualization. To provide evidence for these traits, the teacher could explain that while he is highly appreciated now, when Claude Monet, the founder of French impressionism, first debuted his works, they were largely criticized. Despite the fact that he lived in poverty, Monet continued to paint the way he wanted, eventually experiencing success years after his impressionist debut (J. Paul Getty Museum, n.d.). After this brief lesson, teachers could ask students to identify other individuals who have shown the same traits and use evidence to back up their claims.
To further illustrate, reconsider the student who selected Eleanor Roosevelt as her candidate for self-actualization. She might hypothesize that one of the important traits possessed by Eleanor Roosevelt was her willingness to take risks for the causes she believed in. The student could use Eleanor Roosevelt’s exclusive press conferences for female reporters as evidence of this trait. The student could then explain that many of Eleanor Roosevelt’s actions were inherently risky because she was a pioneer for many progressive ideals and did not know how the public would respond to her actions.
Generate a Class List of Traits
After identifying specific traits and backing them with evidence, teachers can ask students to present their findings to the class. Teachers can do this through brief student presentations or class discussions about traits students have identified. Teachers should record students’ findings as they are presented to compile a list of student-identified traits. Once a list is generated, small groups (or the class as a whole) can analyze its traits. Teachers should remove repeated or irrelevant traits and combine similar traits to create a composite list. In order to further narrow down the list, teachers can also discuss the relevance of traits as they pertain to self-actualization. In some cases, individual trait statements may actually contain multiple traits that can be further isolated. In the previous example of Eleanor Roosevelt’s willingness to take risks for causes she believed in, students might determine that this trait would be better listed as two traits: (1) willingness to take risks and (2) passion for specific causes. A class might generate the following list of possible traits.
▸ Takes risks
▸ Fights for beliefs
▸ Is creative
▸ Works very hard
▸ Doesn’t care when others don’t believe in him or her
▸ Notices people who are often overlooked by others
▸ Is kind
▸ Cares about equality
▸ Keeps trying after failures
▸ Is humble
▸ Is grateful
▸ Is always trying to improve himself or herself
▸ Commits to pursuing a goal
Once developed, teachers can post the lists of traits in their classrooms as reminders to students and reference them when appropriate throughout the year.
Peak Experiences
Peak experiences are euphoric and joyful states derived from significant achievements or experiences that stand out in an individual’s memory. These experiences occur as individuals experience self-actualization or a connection to something greater than self. When explaining self-actualization to students, it may be useful to explain peak experiences as a means of identifying self-actualizing behaviors. One powerful way to have students reflect on their peak experiences is to have them write about them.
When asking college students to write about their own peak experiences, James Polyson (1985) found:
Every student was able to write about a peak experience that demonstrated at least a few of the characteristics of Maslow’s construct—the intrinsically good feelings; the total attentiveness in the here and now; the effortless functioning; the spontaneity and harmony with the environment; and/or the freedom from blocks, fears, and doubts. Most of the peak experiences had occurred during athletic, artistic, religious, or nature experiences, or during intimate moments with a friend or family member. There were a number of peak experiences in which the student achieved an important personal or collective goal. There were also peak experiences in which the student overcame some adversity or danger or helped someone in need. (p. 212)
After asking students to evaluate their experiences with the writing assignment, Polyson found that 98 percent of students found the assignment worthwhile to some degree and that “students were … nearly unanimous in their approval ratings on the item ‘How interesting was the assignment?’” (p. 212). While Polyson focused on college students, teachers can implement a similar writing assignment in K–12 classrooms using the following five-step process.
1. Define peak experiences for students: It may be helpful to provide characteristics of peak experiences (for example, a loss of sense of time, a feeling of effortlessness or a lack of inhibition, a lack of self-doubt or self-criticism, creativity, and so on) to students as well as either personal examples or accounts from self-actualized individuals.
2. Ask students to identify their own peak experiences: It may be difficult for some students to identify their own peak experiences, particularly for students who are younger. However, teachers can reframe this step so that students identify times in which they felt one or more of the characteristics of peak experiences. Teachers should emphasize that most individuals do not experience all the characteristics during peak experiences; rather, peak experiences may embody just one or two of the common characteristics.
3. Have students write a description of the event: Teachers can provide further requirements such as a page length, word count, or more detailed topic guidelines (for example, students can explain how these experiences have continued to impact their lives or focus on the emotions associated with the experience rather than a description of the event itself). Teachers should also consider whether or not to grade the assignment, as writing about personal experiences can be a difficult task for many students.
4. Ask students to share their experiences: Teachers should ask students to volunteer their experiences rather than mandating it, as peak experiences are inherently personal in nature. Similarly, if teachers want to use specific students’ work as examples, they should get prior permission from the students or ask if the examples can be shared with their names omitted.
5. Facilitate a discussion about peak experiences and self-actualization: Teachers can ask students to discuss peak experiences as a class or in small groups. Depending on previous discussions, teachers can ask students to focus on individual experiences shared in class or discuss the concept of a peak experience as a whole. Teachers may find it helpful to provide prompts that focus on particular aspects of peak experiences—for example, teachers can ask students to identify the lasting impact that peak experiences have had on their lives or discuss why they believe specific situations elicited peak experiences.
As students engage in critical analyses of their own peak experiences, teachers can ask students to reflect on why such experiences tend to be characteristic of self-actualization and discuss this relationship.
Mental Dispositions
Schools have sought to engage students in difficult tasks and expose them to complex problems as a means to help them meet the increasingly rigorous standards identified for K–12 students. The way students address these tasks, however, is a function of their existing mental dispositions—that is, the attitudes or actions taken during challenging situations. It is unsurprising that effective mental dispositions are necessary tools in the quest for self-actualization, as personally relevant goals often involve unexpected challenges and difficulties.
Teachers should emphasize that positive and effective mental dispositions generally run counter to natural human reactions to challenges. For example, a majority of people give up easily when they encounter problems, do not test their own limits on a regular basis, or fail to generate or adhere to personal standards of excellence. Making students aware of positive mental dispositions and providing them with opportunities to practice them increase the chances that students will develop these dispositions and use them both inside the classroom and later in life.
While many other experts have articulated desirable mental dispositions for students (for example, Costa & Kallick, 2008), our list of recommended dispositions appears in table 3.3 (page 36).
Table 3.3: Recommended List of Dispositions
| Mental Disposition | Description |
| Staying focused when answers are not immediately apparent | We typically execute this disposition when we are trying to solve a problem. It starts by recognizing that we have become frustrated because we can’t find an answer or solution and are about to give up on the task. Upon this realization, we then re-engage in the task even though we are experiencing ambiguity. |
| Pushing the limits of knowledge and skills | We typically execute this disposition during long-term projects. It begins by recognizing that we have set goals that are limited by our natural tendency to operate within our comfort zone. Upon this realization, we then adjust our goals such that their accomplishment will require us to acquire new knowledge and skills. |
| Generating and pursuing standards of excellence | We typically execute this disposition when we are working on a long-term project that culminates in a product. It starts by consciously thinking of how the product will look when it is complete and the standards by which we will judge how well we did. While considering standard conventions for the product, we might adjust them so they coincide with our personal level of development. |
| Seeking incremental steps | We typically execute this disposition when we are working on a long-term project. Rather than trying to address the entire project as a whole, we focus on small subsets or pieces of the overall system. With the completion of each part, we see how it fits into the whole and then move on to the next part. |
| Checking accuracy | We usually execute this disposition when we are learning something new. This commonly involves gathering information about a topic. It begins with an analysis of the source of the information we are receiving. If we are not completely sure of the accuracy of the source, we then consult sources we are more sure contain accurate information about the topic. |
| Checking clarity | We usually execute this disposition when we are trying to understand something new. It begins by asking ourselves if we have any confusion regarding the information we have processed thus far. If we do, we stop taking in new information and seek clarification from whatever resources are available. |
| Resisting impulsivity | We typically execute this disposition when we are making a decision or forming a conclusion. This commonly occurs when we respond to certain stimuli or form a conclusion based on new information we have processed. It begins by realizing that we have an urge to respond or form a conclusion without collecting more information. We briefly pause and allow time to think about our response or conclusion with an eye toward making revisions. |
| Seeking cohesion and coherence | We usually execute this disposition when we are creating something that has a number of interacting parts. Seeking cohesion means that we continually monitor the extent to which relationships between component parts are solid and stable and make adjustments if they are not. Seeking coherence means that we continually monitor whether the interaction of the parts is producing the desired effect and make adjustments if it is not. |
Once students are familiar with the mental dispositions in table 3.3, teachers can lead them in examinations of their own behaviors. During self-analysis, students assess the degree to which they exhibit a specific mental disposition in a given situation. Table 3.4 provides questions to this end.
As seen in table 3.4, the eight dispositions examined in this chapter fall into five types of situations in which they are commonly employed.
1. Solving a difficult problem
2. Working on a long-term project
3. Interacting with new knowledge
4. Making a decision or forming a conclusion
5. Creating something that has interacting parts
Table 3.4: Self-Analysis Questions for Mental Dispositions
