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INTRODUCTORY.

In searching back through the successive stages of human civilisation we arrive at a period when both written history and traditions fail. This prehistoric period, up to the commencement of the present century, was entirely lost in the thick veil of darkness which surrounded everything pertaining to the past history of the globe. As, however, the truths of geology became gradually formulated into a science, and men's minds got accustomed to apply the new methods of research to the elucidation of the origin and history of the human race, the sphere of prehistoric archæology became equally well defined. The group of phenomena with which it attempts to grapple occupies a sort of neutral territory or borderland between geology and history proper, from both of which, however, it receives large nutrient offshoots. The essential element which characterises the science of prehistoric archæology is an inductive process which depends on the clearness and precision with which the most primitive remains of human art and industries can be identified. But these remains, of whatever materials they may be composed, are liable to the destructive influences of time, and, sooner or later, they become obliterated by disintegration or decomposition. Few compound substances, even in the inorganic kingdom, resist this law, and as for the elaborate productions of the organic kingdom, such as plants and animals, they are hardly ushered into being when a counter process of decay begins, which ends in reducing them to their simple constituents, so that, in a short time, not a trace of their former existence remains. In the midst of these ever-changing activities of life and death which modern scientists have irrefutably shown to have been continuously and progressively at work for countless ages, it may be fairly asked—What is the nature of the evidence by which antiquaries have so largely extended their field of inquiry and propounded such startling opinions regarding the origin and antiquity of our race? In their case the evidence is due to exceptional circumstances which tend to counteract or retard the gnawing tooth of time, and cheat, as it were, Dame Nature out of her ordinary results. Thus, if the handicraft products of reasoning man, or perishable organisms, such as the bodies of animals, be accidentally deposited in the mud of a sea, lake, or river, or suddenly buried in the ruins of a city, or sunk in a bed of growing peat, or become frozen up in a field of perpetual ice, these exceptional results are apt to follow. Hence, an object may be preserved for centuries after its congeners, in ordinary circumstances, have crumbled into dust; or, if ultimately it should become decomposed, a cast or mould may have been previously formed by means of which, ages afterwards, an intelligent observer will be enabled to determine its distinguishing characteristics. In arctic regions the carcasses of animals known to have been extinct for hundreds of years have been found imbedded in ice and so thoroughly preserved that their flesh was actually consumed by the dogs of the present day; and it is not a rare occurrence to find in mossy bogs, such as those in Ireland, the bodies of human beings, that have become accidentally buried in them centuries ago, completely mummified by the preservative influence of the matrix in which they have been entombed. In short, these preservative qualities in nature are analogous to our artificial processes of pickling, embalming, or refrigerating, and had it not been for their occasional occurrence naturally, neither the science of geology nor that of prehistoric archæology would have much chance of being called into existence; nor could we now have any knowledge of the consecutive series of animals and plants that have inhabited this globe prior to the few centuries to which our historical records extend.

That these facts have failed to draw attention to lacustrine and other alluvial deposits as rich repositories of the remains of prehistoric man in Europe till about a quarter of a century ago, is more remarkable when we consider that ancient authors are not altogether silent on the habit prevailing among some races of erecting wooden abodes in lakes and marshes; that the Swiss lake villages, though singularly enough unnoticed by historians, were occupied as late as the Roman period; that frequent references have been made in the Irish annals to the stockaded islands, or as they are here called Crannoges, as existing in Ireland down to the Middle Ages; and that a similar custom is now found to be prevalent amongst some of the ruder races of mankind in various parts of the globe.

Hippocrates (De Aeribus, xxxvii.) speaks of the people in the Phasis, who live in the marshes, and have houses of timber and reeds constructed in the midst of the waters, to which they sail in single tree canoes. Herodotus (v. 16) also describes the dwellers upon the lake Prasias, whose huts were placed on platforms supported by tall piles in the midst of the lake, with a narrow bridge as an approach, and who, on one occasion, successfully resisted the military resources of a Persian army.

Villages composed of pile-dwellings are numerous along the shores of the Gulf of Maracaibo. "The positions chosen for their erections are near the mouths of rivers and in shallow waters. The piles on which they rest are driven deep into the oozy bottom, and so firmly do they hold that there is no shakiness of the loftily-perched dwelling perceptible, even when crowded with people. … Similar dwellings are found in other parts of South America, about the mouths of the Orinoco and the Amazons. They are the invention, not exactly of savages, but of tribes of men in a very primitive stage of culture."—(Illustrated Travels, vol. ii. pp. 19–21.)

Captain Cameron describes three villages built on piles in Lake Mohrya in Central Africa, and in his book of travels gives two sketches of these interesting abodes.—(Across Africa, vol. ii. p. 63.)

Captain R. F. Burton—"Notes connected with Dahoman"—refers to a tribe called Iso, who "have built their huts upon tall poles about a mile distant from the shore."—(Memoirs of the Anthropological Society, vol. i. p. 311.)

Pile-dwellings have been observed along the coasts of New Guinea and Borneo and the creeks and harbours running into the Straits of Malacca. In looking over some photographs recently brought from these regions, I was struck with one which is a representation of lake-dwellings at Singapore. The houses appear to be erected on a series of tall piles, and between the flooring and the water there is a considerable space in which the boats are hung up.

Though a few incidental notices of ancient lake-dwellings in Scotland preceded, in point of time, analogous discoveries in other countries, their real significance appears to have been overlooked till public attention was directed to the Irish Crannoges and Swiss Pfahlbauten. It is therefore desirable, on attempting to give a sketch of the work done in Scotland in this department of archæology, to give here a short account of these Irish and Continental discoveries, not only because they have been instrumental in opening up to Scottish antiquaries this wide field of research, the value of which as a storehouse of ancient relics is hardly yet realised, but because they enable us, by way of comparison, to point out some of the differences, as well as resemblances, of these ancient remains thus nominally associated under the common title of Lake-Dwellings.

Irish Crannogs.[1]

The historic references made to the Irish Crannogs are numerous, and extend over a long period, from the middle of the eighth down to the seventeenth century; but notwithstanding these, it was not till the year 1839 that their archæological importance became known. In this year Sir W. R. Wilde discovered and examined the crannog of Lagore, in the county of Meath, of which he has published an account in the first volume of the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. After this other crannogs were discovered in rapid succession, and it became apparent that they existed very generally over the country. When Sir W. R. Wilde published his Catalogue of the Museum (Royal Irish Academy), in 1857, he states that no less than forty-six were known, and predicts that many others would be exposed to view as the drainage of the country advanced—a prediction which has been amply verified, because every succeeding year has seen an increase to their number. According to this writer, crannogs "were not strictly speaking artificial islands, but cluans, small islets, or shallows of clay or marl, in those lakes which were probably dry in summer-time, but submerged in winter. These were enlarged and fortified by piles of oaken timber, and in some cases by stone-work. A few were approached by moles or causeways, but, generally speaking, they were completely insulated and only accessible by boat; and it is notable that in almost every instance an ancient canoe was discovered in connection with the crannoge. Being thus insulated, they afforded secure places of retreat from the attacks of enemies, or were the fastnesses of predatory chiefs or robbers, to which might be conveyed the booty of a marauding excursion, or the product of a cattle raid."

A more recent explorer and writer on Irish crannogs, Mr. W. F. Wakeman, in a paper entitled "Observations on the principal Crannogs of Fermanagh," published in 1873,[2] goes on to say, after noticing their existence in eighteen different places in this county, and numbering no less than twenty-nine, "This glance is far from complete in its enumeration of the 'Lake Dwellings' still remaining in this old territory, but it gives, I think, the principal examples. … The Irish crannog, great or small, was simply an island, either altogether or in part artificial, strongly staked with piles of oak, pine, yew, alder, or other timber, encompassed by rows of palisading (the bases of which now usually remain), behind which the occupiers of the hold might defend themselves with advantage against assailants. Within the enclosure were usually one or more log-houses, which no doubt afforded shelter to the dwellers during the night-time, or whenever the state of the weather necessitated a retreat under cover."

None of the writers on Irish crannogs appear to have paid much attention to the structure of these islands, and beyond the mere statement that they were "stockaded," palisaded, or surrounded by one or more circles of piles, they give no explanation of the attachments and proper function of the surrounding piles. These are generally described as having been driven into the muddy bottom of the lake, and the most essential part of the mechanism of construction, viz., the horizontal mortised beams, has been only incidentally noticed. Though the purpose of these horizontal beams does not appear to have been understood, it is of importance to observe that their existence has not been entirely overlooked, as will be seen from the following quotations.

In his description of the crannog at Lagore near Dunshaughlin, Sir W. R. Wilde says: "The circumference of the circle was formed by upright posts of black oak, measuring from 6 to 8 feet in height; these were mortised into beams of a similar material laid flat upon the marl and sand beneath the bog, and nearly 16 feet below the present surface. The upright posts were held together by connecting cross-beams, and (said to be) fastened by large iron nails; parts of a second upper tier of posts were likewise found resting on the lower ones. The space thus enclosed was divided into separate compartments by septa or divisions that intersected each other in different directions; these were also formed of oaken beams in a state of good preservation, joined together with greater accuracy than the former, and in some cases having their sides grooved or rabbeted to admit large panels, driven down between them."[3]

Dr. Reeves, writing about a crannog in the county of Antrim, says: "These piles were from 17 to 20 feet long, and from 6 to 8 inches thick, driven into the bed of the lough, and projecting above this bed about 5 or 6 feet. They were bound together at the top by horizontal oak beams, into which they were mortised, and secured in the mortise by stout wooden pegs."[4]

My next quotation is from a paper by G. H. Kinahan, Esq., of the Geological Survey of Ireland, on Crannogs in Lough Rea: "A little N.W. of the double row, in the old working, there is a part of a circle of piles; and in another, a row of piles running nearly E. and W. Mr. Hemsworth of Danesfort, who spent many of his younger days boating on the lake, and knows every part of it, informs me that on the upper end of some of the upright piles there were the marks of where horizontal beams were mortised on them. These seemed now to have disappeared, as I did not remark them."[5]

Mr. Wakeman, to whose writings I have already referred, writes as follows: "It would appear that, in some instances at least, their spike-like tops were anciently mortised into holes cut for their reception in beams of oak, which were laid horizontally. Just one such beam we found undisturbed, resting on the vertical spike in situ. A respectable elderly man, named Coulter, who resides not far from the lough (Ballydoolough) informed me that he well recollected to have seen many of these horizontal timbers resting upon the stakes or piles. They were hardly ever uncovered, but were distinctly visible a few inches below the surface of the water. This I believe to be a feature in the construction of crannogs but seldom remarked."[6]

As indications of the social economy and industries of the occupiers of these crannogs, there were found many articles made of stone, bone, wood, bronze, and iron, such as swords, knives, spears, javelins, dagger-blades, sharpening-stones, querns, beads, pins, brooches, combs, horse-trappings, shears, chains, axes, pots, bowls, etc., and within the last few years, according to Mr. Wakeman,[7] many fragments of pottery, of a similar character to the fictile ware used for mortuary purposes in the prehistoric and pagan period, have also been found on some of them.

Many of these relics were deposited in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, but it is to be regretted that, owing partly to the system of classification now adopted in this Museum, by which articles are grouped together on the principle of resemblance, few of them can be identified or separated from the general collection, so that, except some articles thrown loosely into a drawer, and labelled as having been found in the crannogs of Dunshaughlin, Ballinderry, and Strokestown, no special or representative collection of crannog-remains now exists in Ireland. Several ancient canoes are well preserved in the lower portion of the Museum. Some have square-cut sterns, others have both ends pointed, some have cross bands, like ribs, left in the solid oak at regular intervals, as if to strengthen the sides of the vessel, while others are uniformly scooped out without any raised ridges. They vary much in size and shape. The largest is thus referred to in the small handbook to the Museum:—

"Down the centre of the room extends the largest known canoe, formed of a single tree. The remains measure 42 feet in length, and the canoe was probably 45 feet long, by from 4 to 5 feet wide, in its original state. It was recovered from the bottom of Loch Owel, in West Meath, and cut into eight sections for purposes of transport. There is a curious arrangement of apertures in the bottom, apparently to receive the ends of uprights supporting an elevating deck."

On the antiquity of the Irish crannogs, Sir W. R. Wilde writes as follows:—"Certainly the evidences derived from the antiquities found in ours, and which are chiefly of iron, refer them to a much later period than the Swiss; while we do not find any flint arrows or stone celts, and but very few bronze weapons, in our crannogs. Moreover, we have positive documentary evidence of the occupation of many of these fortresses in the time of Elizabeth, and some even later."—(Proceedings of Royal Irish Academy, vol. vii. p. 152.) Subsequent researches, however, have shown that all the desiderated articles above mentioned have been found on crannogs. For instance, amongst the remains described by Mr. Shirley, from the crannogs in MacMahon's country, are stone celts, an arrow-head of flint, two arrow-heads of bronze, three looped bronze celts, bronze knives, etc.;[8] and G. H. Kinahan, Esq., M.R.I.A., thus concludes a short notice on Irish Lake-Dwellings, contributed to Keller's book (2d edit. p. 654):—"Of the time when the crannōgs were first built there is no known record, but that they must have been inhabited at an early period is evident, as antiquities belonging to the stone age are found in them. Some were in use up to modern times, Crannough Macknavin, County Galway, having been destroyed in A.D. 1610, by the English, while Ballynahuish Castle was inhabited fifty years ago. Some crannōgs seem to have been continuously occupied until they were finally abandoned, while others were deserted for longer or shorter periods. In Shore Island, Lough Rea, County Galway, there is a lacustrine accumulation over 3 feet thick, marking the time that elapsed between two occupations.

"In Wakefield's Island, A.D. 1812, attention was directed to a crannōg in Lough Nahineb, County Tipperary; but to the late Sir W. R. Wilde, M.D., is due the credit of bringing these structures prominently under public notice. This observer records forty-six crannōgs (Catalogue, Royal Irish Academy, vol. i. p. 220 et seq.), but since then twice as many have been recorded, most of which are described in the publications of the Royal Irish Academy, or kindred Societies; but a systematic classification of the crannōgs has yet to be made."

Continental Lake Dwellings.

Soon after the discovery of the Irish crannogs, the attention of archæologists was directed to remains of lake-dwellings in Switzerland. It appears that during the winter of 1853–4 the inhabitants of Ober Meilen, near Zürich, took advantage of the low state of the water in the lake to recover portions of the land, which they enclosed with walls, and filled in the space with mud. When the workmen began to excavate, they came upon heads of wooden piles, stone celts, stags' horns, and various kinds of implements. The late Dr. Ferdinand Keller, President of the Antiquarian Society at Zürich, hearing of the discovery, took up the matter with much energy, and after careful investigation of the remains at Ober Meilen, came to the conclusion that the piles had supported a platform, that on this platform huts had been erected, and that, after being inhabited for many centuries, the whole wooden structure had been destroyed by fire. Dr. Keller called these structures pile-buildings (Keltische Pfahlbauten), but they are more commonly known in this country as Lake-Dwellings (habitations lacustres). The discovery at Zürich was almost immediately followed by the discovery of similar structures in the other Swiss lakes. Owing to the vast system of drainage carried on since, there has been a great increase to their number, so that, at the present time, it is well ascertained that there was scarcely a sheltered bay in any of the lakes of Switzerland and neighbouring countries but contained a lake village. The most common plan adopted by the constructors of these ancient dwellings was to drive numerous piles of wood, sharpened sometimes by fire, sometimes by stone celts, or, in later times, by metal tools, into the mud near the shore of a lake; cross-beams were then laid over the tops of these piles, and fastened to them either by mortises or pins of wood, so as to form a platform. In certain cases the interstices between the upright piles were filled with large stones, so as to keep them firmer.

It appears also that the stones were brought in canoes and thrown down after the piles were driven in, in proof of which, a canoe, loaded with stones, was found in the Lake of Bienne, which had sunk to the bottom. Sometimes, when the mud was very soft, the upright piles were found to have been mortised into split oak-trees, lying flat at the bottom of the lake. Other erections were made by layers of sticks laid horizontally, one above the other, till they projected above the surface of the water, and thus presented a somewhat solid foundation for the platform. Upright piles here and there penetrated the mass, but rather served the purpose of keeping it together than of giving any support to the platform. These are called fascine-dwellings, and occur chiefly in the smaller lakes, and belong, for the most part, to the stone age.

The regular pile-buildings are far more numerous than the fascine-dwellings, but, notwithstanding the simplicity of structure of the latter, they do not appear to be older than the former, and it is a matter of observation that the civilisation of the fascine-dwellers corresponds with that of the inhabitants of other settlements of the stone age—in fact no difference has been observed between the earliest and the latest dwellings, except that the latter, as the result of improved tools, were found in deeper water.

The structural resemblance between the fascine-dwellings on the Continent, the Irish crannogs, and (as it will be afterwards seen) the Scottish lake-dwellings, is so striking, that the following, taken from Keller's book (2d edition, p. 597), is worth recording:—

"As the Lake of Fuschl is so near the Mondsee (Austria), it may be included in this notice; and it is somewhat singular, that here are found decided proofs of a 'fascine' lake-dwelling, in many respects similar to several found in Switzerland. This little lake and its banks are rich in fish and game. On the west side of the hill, where the former archiepiscopal hunting-lodge stood, there is a small bay with an island evidently made by human hands. It is nearly circular, about fifty paces in diameter, and is separated from the mainland by a narrow ditch or canal, now nearly filled up with moss and marsh plants. The island is covered first with a thick layer of peat moss and heather, beneath which lies a mass of branches, chiefly of the mountain pine and the dwarf birch. The island is very little raised above the water, and must have been very liable to be overflowed. The foundation appears to consist of boughs of pine-trees with their branches turned inwards. Small piles are driven in to keep them together, and, on the side of the lake, a number of stronger piles, or the remains of them, may be seen, amongst which lies a quantity of woody débris."

From the remains found on the sites of these lacustrine villages, it is inferred that their occupiers were acquainted with agriculture, and grew wheat and barley; that they had domesticated animals, such as cats, dogs, pigs, oxen, horses, sheep, and goats; that they used as food, besides the flesh of domesticated and wild animals, fish, milk, corn-meal boiled or baked, hazel nuts, plums, apples, pears, sloes, blackberries, and raspberries; that they were acquainted with the principles of social government and the division of labour; and that they manufactured cloth and ropes from bast and flax by means of looms, and the distaff and spindle. Their clothing consisted of skins of animals sometimes prepared into leather, as well as cloth plaited or woven from flax. Of the kind of huts or buildings erected over the platforms, little is known owing to their complete decay from exposure to sun and rain. They appear to have been rectangular in shape, and formed of wattle or hurdle-work of small branches, woven between the upright piles, and plastered over with clay. Each had a hearth formed of two or three large slabs overlying a bed of clay.

The earliest founders of these dwellings were, according to Keller, a branch of the Celtic population who came into Europe as a pastoral people, bringing with them, from the East, the most important domestic animals.

The absence of winter corn and hemp, most of the culinary vegetables, as well as the domestic fowl, which was unknown to the Greeks till about the time of Pericles, points to the period of their occupancy as a long way antecedent to the Christian era. Dr. Keller, one of the ablest authorities on this subject, has come to the conclusion that they were simply villages inhabited by a peaceful community, that they attained their greatest development about B.C. 1500, and that they finally ceased to be occupied about the commencement of the Christian era.

This wide chronological range embraces the three so-called ages of stone, bronze, and iron, but it appears that the settlements belonging exclusively to the stone age were more numerous and more widely distributed than those of the metallic period. Bronze age settlements were almost peculiar to western and central Switzerland, while the iron age is scarcely represented beyond the lakes of Bienne and Neuchâtel, so that it would appear that the lake-villages commenced to decrease in number towards the close of the former. Of the vast quantity and variety of relics found on their sites, illustrative of the culture and social organisation of their occupiers, it is impossible here to give even the barest description; but this is less necessary, as more detailed accounts are now easily accessible to general readers. After the voluminous and well illustrated work of the late Dr. Keller (as translated by Dr. Lee, 2d ed.), there is no epitome of the subject more worthy of perusal than chapter vi. of Sir John Lubbock's great work on Prehistoric Times, 4th edition.