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The History of Karate

At some point in man's ancient history he found it necessary to defend himself continuously from his fellows. This need for self-defense was usually a collective enterprise, as man did not live alone, but in extended families or small tribes. Eventually, these groups became large enough so that individual roles were defined. In primitive societies could be found men whose main duties were the making of weapons, hunting, or other related tasks. Throughout the feudal periods of history, wars between neighboring groups were carried on mainly by members of the aristocracy, and sometimes by peasants, who laid aside their farm implements and picked up weapons to defend their native soil.

As societies continued to grow, roles were further specialized to the extent that the economy was able to support a permanent military force. Classes of professional warriors, whose main task in life was to fight, came into existence. These were men who had the time and financial support that permitted the full-time practice of the methods of war and all its intricacies. These circumstances resulted in the development of the martial arts, the aim of whose training was to prepare men for war and to keep them in constant readiness should the need for their services arise. In different areas of the world this process took place at different times.

With the advent of firearms, the traditional martial arts began to decline in value. A conscripted soldier with a little training was capable of killing with one shot even the most heavily armored knight or the most skilled swordsman. The value placed on the arts of the sword, spear, and bow were denigrated. As this transition occurred, the continuous local warfare between neighbors began to lessen. In Japan, this began to take place when a unification process began in the seventeenth century.

The final step in the process (in Japan) that saw the decline of the warrior came with the Meiji Restoration of 1868, at which time the feudal system was abolished. Japan then saw the need to style her army along Western lines. Accordingly, the arts of the sword and spear took second place to the use of the rifle and artillery in the creation of a modern army. As Japan progressed and became involved at the turn of the century in a series of wars with other Asian countries and certain Western powers, the utilitarian function of those traditional arts declined. However, since they were a valuable part of the traditions of Japan and excellent builders of spiritual and physical strength, training in them was still encouraged. In order to derive the most benefit from their practice, newer types of contests had to be developed which would not see the death of the loser as a result. For example, the shinai, or bamboo sword, which had been used in schools of traditional sword fighting for centuries as a practice implement, became the principle weapon in the practice of kendo (sword fighting), while the live blade was reserved for practice in moves without an opponent (i.e., the kata; see Chapter 7). By wearing armor and using the shinai, schools could compete with one another and live to tell about it. Safe practice made it possible for the traditional arts, among them judo and karate, to develop into systems of physical education. In summary, the techniques of warfare had been transformed into means of physical conditioning, self-discipline, and even entertainment, that is, into sport.

In the remainder of this chapter, a general history of karate—and its development from martial art to sport—will be outlined. In subsequent chapters, the influence that the history and traditions of Japan had on this development will be examined in greater detail.

THE ORIGINS OF KARATE

Since man began his existence unarmed, systems of weaponless combat can be found throughout the world. In the Far East, these systems are very old and carry different names according to the geographical areas in which they are practiced, for example, ch'uan-fa in China, taekwon-do in Korea, and karate in Japan. For purposes of simplification the term "karate" is used herein to designate those Oriental combative arts whose main techniques involve striking an opponent with the hands or feet. In Asia this type of fighting has a long history. Among the unarmed fighting techniques, karate is perhaps the oldest form of pugilism.

The origins of the art are somewhat obscure, owing in part to the fact that it was frequently practiced in secret by groups vying for power. Since its history was not written, one has to rely on oral tradition, bits and pieces of information, and art works in order to present a complete picture.

According to legend, there existed in India a system of unarmed hand-and-foot fighting prior to 1000 B.C. Scant evidence substantiates its existence. It is known, however, that a warrior caste, the Kshatriya, dominated India before the advent of Buddhism and was in control until the rise of the Brahman caste. The Kshatriya were said to have practiced a bare-handed martial art known as vajramushti, a fighting technique that used the clenched fist as a weapon. There are numerous statues dating to the first century B.C. which depict temple guardians in poses similar to those used in fighting arts practiced later. It is these statues and the slight knowledge of the vajramushti which gives rise to the belief that karate may have originated in India. There is the possiblity, however, that the native Indian art may have been influenced by the Greeks. The conquests of Alexander the Great, who reached India in 327 B.C., may have led to the assimilation by the inhabitants of the Near East of certain fighting methods practiced in Greece.

The Greeks practiced a number of combative arts, among them a form of boxing which had long been a part of their culture. Perhaps the best evidence of the existence of such a fighting method in early times is the so-called "Boxers Vase" from Hagia Triada. Depicted on the sides of the vase are sports that have been interpreted as boxing and wrestling. The stances assumed by the figures closely resemble the zenkutsu-dachi (front stance) of modern Japanese karate. Two figures are depicted exchanging what seem to be counterpunches. In another scene one fighter has been thrown to the ground and his opponent stands over him ready to deliver a blow. The vase itself was produced on Crete, and other vases and bits of pottery with similar scenes have been found dating back to 1600 B.C.,¹ establishing the existence of karate-like fighting styles in the Western world at that time.

Various aspects of Greek boxing indicate that it more closely resembled Asian fighting than the modern Western style of boxing, although it had its own unique developments. One of the latter was the cestus, a device consisting of leather thongs and strips wrapped around the hand and forearm to increase striking power. Pottery fragments have been found that clearly show the use of these attachments. In a boxing contest, blows could be delivered with the open hand as well as with the clenched fist, and there was no prohibition against striking a fallen opponent. Weight classes were nonexistent in Greek boxing, just as in the practice of Asian karate. The heavyweight boxer, therefore, had the advantage.

One dissimilarity between Greek and Asian fighting was the emphasis of the former on blows to the head. In Asian systems, the body is considered to be the better target. This difference in emphasis might be explained by basic philosophic differences. The center of the Greek spirit was considered to be the head. Typical statues of Greek athletes depict a well-developed upper torso and a handsome face. The midsection is developed but is shown as a secondary feature. By contrast, statues of Asian temple guardians all show extremely well-developed and prominent abdomens. This may be attributed to the Oriental belief that the seika tanden, the "one point," located below the navel, is the center of the body.

Typical Greek boxing matches were not divided into rounds as in present-day boxing. Fights lasted until one fighter was knocked out or signaled defeat by raising his hand. (It is interesting to note that boxing may not have been practiced in Sparta, since one contestant would have to admit defeat, quite out of keeping with Spartan tradition.² ) Since no ring was used, boxers could not corner an opponent and rely on infighting techniques. Therefore, the use of long range attacks, strong defensive positions, and the waiting out of the opponent came into play. This is very similar to a fight between karate enthusiasts, who traditionally wait to deliver the knockout blow. Indeed, a contest today between two high-ranked karate men may consist of several long periods of waiting followed by strong, vigorous attacks.

Roman boxing, incidentally, was less of a sport than a spectacle for popular amusement. The leaders of Rome felt that boxing was not an art that had practical military applications: far better if young warriors trained in the use of spear and sword. Boxing practice was left to the gladiators, who utilized a new, deadlier type of cestus, one with metal projections, that made the sport a bloody melee. As such, Roman boxing did not possess the skillful techniques or moral aspects of the Greek and Asian versions.

There existed in Greece another sport, known as the pankration, or "game of all powers," since at least 648 B.C., when it was instituted as an Olympic event.³ This sport developed as a combination of earlier forms of Greek boxing and wrestling. In it, any technique except eye-gouging and biting was permitted (although some city-states may have allowed even this). Kicking was common, and statues exist that show practitioners competing what in modern karate would be called the front kick. Other techniques permitted were straight punches, jumping kicks, and throws similar to the tomoe-nage, or "circle throw," of judo, a move in which the thrower grasps the opponent's lapels and while falling backward, presses his foot in his adversary's stomach and throws him over his head. On some pottery fragments can be seen a front kick that has been caught with the defender moving in to sweep the supporting leg with a throw similar to judo's o-uchi-gari (inner-leg hook). Pankration contests were held under strict supervision, the referees using a long rod to strike the fighter who violated the rules. It was this form of empty-handed Greek art that most closely resembled Asian karate.

The pankration was not considered to be a "gentleman's sport" in the same way that Greek boxing was. In Plato's Laws (c. 350 B.C.) it may be observed that the "upright posture" was highly regarded.⁴ Since the pankrationist had to leave his feet and assume the contrary poses in his fighting, Plato did not see the sport as beneficial to the correct development of young men. Indeed, he even criticized the use of such throwing and grappling techniques in the pankration by the fighters Antaeus and Cercyon as being useless in actual fighting and "unworthy of celebration." A young man should stand on his feet, not roll in the dust. This idea was a popular one and by the second century A.D. it was common to prohibit all wrestling techniques.

Some historians have discovered written evidence which, they claim, suggests that an early form of boxing existed in China. This ancient sport resembled more the pankration than the modern sport of boxing. E. Norman Gardiner mentions a boxing match between the marquis of Chin and the viscount of Chu in 631 B.C.⁵ Apparently, the techniques used were not limited to punches, but included kicks and throws.

Still another method of training young men, also similar to karate, existed in ancient Greece. In The Laws, Plato described a dance called the pyrrhic as a mock battle in which the performer simulated the attitudes of attack and defense. The emphasis was on correct form and good posture. The dance was used as a means to train young men for fighting, but whether or not this Greek art had any influence on the fighting techniques of Asia is a matter for speculation. However, the descriptions of the pyrrhic by Plato might well be used to describe the traditional karate kata, or formal exercise. One thing that may be noted is that the pankration and the pyrrhic both antedate the Indian statues.

Although the discussion above indicates the existence of karate-like fighting arts in Greece, it is quite difficult to make any definite or substantial connection with present day martial arts in the Far East. Since the Greeks did maintain control of portions of the Near East that border on India, it is possible that elements of those two arts may have been introduced into India at that time. However, most historians seem content to trace the art of karate to the Indian vajramushti system. Even that investigation is hampered by a lack of evidence. Indeed, information about the Indian origins of karate is found only in legend and oral tradition.

FROM INDIA TO CHINA

India and China have a common border, so it is quite possible that the Indian vajramushti system was transmitted to China along with Buddhism. However, empty-handed fighting systems existed in China prior to the introduction of Buddhism, and any connection between Indian and Chinese fighting systems is difficult to prove. An examination of the legends of Chinese Buddhist monasteries, however, does seem to indicate a link between the Indian arts and the Chinese style of weaponless fighting known as ch'uan-fa (lit., fist way).

Perhaps the best-known branch of Buddhism in the Western world is the Zen sect. Called Dhyana in Sanskrit and Chan in Chinese, its teachings stress meditation as the way to achieve enlightenment. The founder of the Chan school in China is a fascinating, semi-legendary figure by the name of Bodhidharma (Daruma Taishi in Japanese). The myriad tales of his adventures and accomplishments in China are part of the folk legends of that country and make it difficult to distinguish fact from fiction.

Bodhidharma was born in India as a member of the Kshatriya caste. He was the third son of King Sugandha and was the twenty-eighth patriarch of Indian Buddhism. His real name was Bodhitara, which was later changed to Bodhidharma by his Dhyana master, Prajnatara. Bodhidharma remained in India studying under Prajnatara until the master died. It was at that point that he set out for China. Upon his arrival there Bodhidharma was invited to the court of Emperor Wu in Nanjing. The emperor had already developed a great interest in Buddhism and told Bodhidharma of the many good deeds he had performed. He described in detail the many Buddhist temples he had constructed, the Buddhist scriptures he had ordered his scholars to copy, and the favors he had granted to monks and nuns. Apparently, he felt that these material accomplishments would bring him merit. The emperor thereupon asked of the sage the extent of the merit due him. Bodhidharma immediately replied, "None at all." At that the emperor was surprised. He then asked his guest what the First Principle of Buddhism was and received the reply "nothingness." Somewhat annoyed with the monk, the emperor asked Bodhidharma who he thought he was. Bodhidharma said, "I do not know," and left. The emperor, after contemplating the monk's behavior for a while, sent a messenger after him to request his return. The envoy caught up with Bodhidharma just in time to see him cross the Yangzi River, supposedly standing upright on a reed. The legend then states that Bodhidharma traveled north from there to Henan Province where he took up residence at the Shaolin monastery in Sung Shan and began teaching the tenets of Chan Buddhism to the monks. According to another story, it was at that temple that Bodhidharma sat facing a wall for nine years in silent meditation, a feat which caused his legs to atrophy.

Still another tale, popular in martial arts circles today, concerns the connection between Bodhidharma and the founding of the form of ch'uan-fa of the Shaolin monastery. According to the legend, Bodhidharma was attempting to teach Chan to the monks at the Shaolin temple, an endeavor which subjected them to long periods of meditation. Many of them were in poor physical condition and the vigorous training of Bodhidharma left them on the verge of collapse. As a youth in India, Bodhidharma had learned the vajramushti fighting system. In order to strengthen the monks at Shaolin, he began teaching them this combat form. Soon the monks became known as the most formidable fighters in all of China. Supposedly, the system of physical exercise developed by him was the basis of the well-known Shaolin ch'uan-fa system, with succeeding masters adding to and improving upon original techniques until the more modern schools developed. (As mentioned previously, fighting forms existed in China before the introduction of Buddhism there. Thus, some Chinese martial arts exist which cannot trace their origins— historically or by legend—to Bodhidharma or the Shaolin temple.)⁶

The exercises that Bodhidharma taught his monks are said to have been written down in the Hsien-Sui Ching and I-Chin Ching. The former book has been lost, but the I-Chin Ching has supposedly been passed down through the ages. Some feel that none of the current versions is authentic; perhaps many of these texts were designed to perpetuate the myths about the monk. In spite of all the legends about him, however, it is generally accepted that he was in China sometime around A.D. 520 and did spread the Dhyana school of Buddhism there.

Chinese martial arts became increasingly popular during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). However, with the rise to power of the Manchu, a Mongoloid people, many of the practitioners were forced to flee southward. They joined secret societies in order to help fight against the Manchu rulers and restore Chinese sovereignty. Opposition to the Manchu led to an increase in the number of boxing schools and secret Chinese societies, thus helping spread the arts throughout the country. Since the societies were instituted for the purposes of combat, it became necessary for the pugilists to become masters of Chinese weapons—the broad sword, the hooking sword, the plum-blossom sword, and the halberd—as well.

The customs of the boxers were not unlike those of the medieval Japanese fencing schools. The town boxing master taught selected students in private training sessions. Many students, in order to improve their proficiency, toured the country challenging these resident teachers. If the challenger lost, he would likely remain with his new master to study. If he won, the boxing teacher might be chased out of town and lose his school. The rules of combat specified that the challenger could decide whether weapons were to be used and, if so, what they would be. Therefore, a teacher had to be proficient with as many weapons as possible in order to protect his own interests. If the challenger was an unknown, the master might let him fight his senior students. This gave him time to observe the new opponent's technique and plan his strategy. If the students were defeated, the master would have to accept the challenge.

The proliferation of the boxing schools is obvious: there are over forty well-known systems extant in China today.⁷ In the People's Republic of China, the general classification of martial arts, ch'uan-fa, has been changed to wushu, literally, "military arts." (Incidentally, the term common in the West for these arts, "kung-fu," is from a Cantonese word meaning "to be skillful at something"; it should not be applied to Chinese fighting systems, since its meaning is so general.) National contests are held in China, the arts being as popular as ever, particularly in light of the government's emphasis on physical fitness and the individual soldier. The warming of relations between the United States and China in the 1970s has made it possible for groups of Chinese martial artists to tour the United States and give demonstrations of their art.

No student of the martial arts today questions the idea that present-day karate systems were influenced by the Chinese, even though the possibility of some earlier Indian influence does exist. As one more point of historical background, the two main systems of Chinese martial arts, the exoteric, or hard, schools and the esoteric, or soft, schools are mentioned here. The exoteric schools, in which Shaolin ch'uan-fa is grouped, are generally considered to emphasize the building of strength in technique, speed, and agility in linear, angular movements—in short, the development of primarily physical techniques. The esoteric schools have tended to emphasize the building of strength in technique coupled with exercises that develop the mental concentration which allow the practitioner greater control over his body. Although one of the schools might be predominant according to location in China, most of present-day Japanese-Okinawan karate is oriented toward the exoteric systems.

OKINAWAN KARATE

Although native fighting systems existed in Okinawa and were known simply as te (lit., hand), there is general agreement among martial arts historians that there was significant Chinese influence that generated modifications to the art. When that influence began is debatable, with some writers asserting that it may have taken place as early as the Tang dynasty (A.D. 618-906).⁸ Others claim that the first elements of a systematized fighting form were brought from China to Okinawa during the reign of Okinawan King Sho En (r. 1470-76),⁹ but it is probable that the transmission began between these two extremes.

In 1372, King Satto of Okinawa established a tributary relationship with the Ming emperor in China. As a result, many Okinawans left their homes to reside in China as part of the Okinawan mission, and many Chinese went to Okinawa with the Chinese delegation. These Okinawans brought back elements of Chinese fighting arts and combined them with the existing system of Okinawan unarmed combat, producing tode (lit., Tang hands), a new, more organized system of self-defense. To that time, the Okinawan te had been characterized by the use of the clenched fist. However, the Chinese influence that produced the new art of tode saw the introduction of more varied techniques. One influence, from Taiwan, was the use of the spearhand (nukite); another, the open-hand (kaishu) techniques borrowed from Chinese ch'uan-fa. Kicking techniques in the Okinawan arts were largely the result of influences from southern Chinese systems. Most authorities agree that later karate developed as a result of influences from ch'uan-fa and tode.

In 1393 a group of Chinese craftsmen and administrators were sent to Okinawa by Emperor Hung Wu to show support for the regime of King Satto and to demonstrate to the Okinawans the superiority of Chinese administrative and shipbuilding methods. The settlement that they founded near Naha became known as the "thirty-six families," a term used at that time to designate a large group of people. Okinawan legends credit the members of this group with the spread of ch'uan-fa. Meitoku Yagi, current master of the Goju-ryu school, traces his ancestry to a Chinese ch'uan-fa master who was a member of one of those families.

Okinawa was unified under King Sho Hashi in 1429. Sea trade was encouraged, leading to the development of two great ports, Shuri and Naha. In succeeding years, Okinawans gained fairly extensive knowledge of Southeast Asian forms of combat as a result of their trade in that part of the world. Later, under King Sho Shin (r. 1477-1526), the first prohibition of weapons took place.

In 1609 the Satsuma clan of southern Kyushu, Japan, led by Shimazu Ie-hisa, took control of Okinawa. Shimazu instituted firm control over the populace, placing many restrictions on the natives, including a continuing ban on weapons. All arms found were confiscated and the owners severely punished. The Okinawans were resentful and conflicts arose between them and their Japanese rulers, resulting in the practice of weaponless fighting in earnest. In addition, the severe pressure placed on the Okinawans by the Japanese forced the diverse schools to cooperate with each other, which led to an improvement in technique. Thus, the imported ch'uan-fa was able to further influence the native forms of the martial arts. The art that arose as a result of this unification was referred to simply as te, a return to the original terminology of the region.

Since the new art had to be learned in secret, little was written about it. In time, the term was prefixed by the name of the town in which it was practiced. Subsequently, three major schools developed: Shuri-te, Tomari-te, and Naha-te. Shuri-te, an exoteric system, emphasized speed and combined techniques with rational (practical) movements. Naha-te combined the Chinese hard and soft techniques, using rational, dynamic movements and emphasizing breathing, flexibility, and strength. Tomari-te has been described as containing elements of both Naha-te and Shuri-te systems, with added stress on speed and agility. A twentieth-century karate master, Gichin Funa-koshi, would claim that Tomari-te was more suitable for men of slight build, as it matched their fighting style, while the Naha-te was more suited for self-defense, but lacked mobility.¹⁰ In time, Shuri-te and Tomari-te became known as the Shorin style and Naha-te as the Shorei style. Because it was practiced in secret, te took on a certain exotic air and became extremely violent, having the immediate extinction of an opponent as its chief goal.

Perhaps the greatest master of Naha-te in the history of Okinawan karate was Kanryo Higaonna (1851-1915). Higaonna, known as Kensei (lit., fist saint), studied in Fuzhou, China, for over twenty years under the ch'uan~fa master Liu Liu-ko. In addition, he was one of the top students of the famous Shuri-te master Sokon Matsumura.

The end of Satsuma rule in 1872 led to an intense rivalry between the Shuri, Naha, and Tomari schools, since they had no common enemy left to fight. This further resulted in open quarrels and a bad reputation for the art in general. However, in 1902 karate finally surfaced from the depths of secrecy. The Okinawans, recognizing its valuable character-building aspects, introduced it as a part of the physical education curriculum of the First Middle School of Okinawa upon the suggestion of Shintaro Ogawa, Commissioner of Schools for Kagoshima Prefecture.¹¹ (Okinawa was officially apart of Japan by then.) The first instructor was Anko Itosu. Shortly thereafter, a number of men became well known as karate masters. Among them were Gichin Funakoshi, Chotoku Kyan, Kenwa Mabuni, Choki Motobu, Uden Yabu, Chojo Ogusuku, Chojun Miyagi, Chomo Hanashiro, Kentsu Yabu, Juhatsu Kiyoda, and Ankichi Arakaki. Many of them were responsible for the later introduction of karate systems into Japan.

Today there are five major systems of karate practiced on Okinawa: Uechi-ryu and Goju-ryu, which are descended from Naha-te; and Shorin-ryu, which is divided into Matsubayashi-ryu, Kobayashi-ryu, and Shorin-ryu. The three subgroups of Shorin-ryu are descendents of Shuri-te. All the styles are organized into the All-Okinawan Karate-Do Association, the official body governing the martial arts on Okinawa.

Uechi-ryu is the Okinawan name for the Chinese system called Pon-gai-noon. It was founded by Kanbun Uechi, who went to China in 1901 to study ch'uan-fa. He returned years later and founded his school on Okinawa. At this time, his son, Kan'ei Uechi, is the head of the system of Uechi-ryu on Okinawa and has eight schools under his control. He has also served as one of the directors of the All-Okinawan Karate-Do Association.

Goju-ryu (lit., hard-soft style) was founded as a separate system by the late Chojun Miyagi in the 1920s. Born in Naha City, Okinawa, in 1888, Miyagi trained in the Naha-te school under Kanryo Higaonna from 1902 to 1915. He then sailed to Fuzhou and studied there until 1917 in such Chinese styles as Pa-kua Hsing-i, Mi Tsung-i, and "tiger-crane" Shaolin. Master Miyagi spent his entire life contributing to the improvement and proliferation of karate-do. He died in 1953 on Okinawa, leaving the Goju school to Meitoku Yagi, his highest-ranked disciple. Yagi inherited Miyagi's belt on the tenth anniversary of the master's death.

One of the Shorin-ryu schools, the Matsubayashi-ryu, was founded in 1947 by Shoshin Nagamine, a contemporary karate master who studied his art under Ankichi Arakaki, Chotoku Kyan, and Choki Motobu. The Koba-yashi-ryu branch of Shorin-ryu was founded by Choshin Chibana, while the third branch, Shorin-ryu, dates back to Sokon Matsumura, a famous Shuri-te master.

JAPANESE KARATE

Karate had been practiced in many countries of the Orient since early times, but did not receive a formal introduction to the Japanese public until 1922, when Okinawan karate master Gichin Funakoshi gave a demonstration in Japan. Funakoshi, born in Shuri in 1868, had studied under Shuri-te masters Anko Itosu and Yasutsune Azato. An elementary school teacher by occupation, Funakoshi was invited by the Central Secretariat of Physical Education to go to Tokyo to demonstrate karate at the National Athletic Championships. The founder of Kodokan judo, Jigoro Kano, was so impressed that he invited Funakoshi to stay and teach karate at the Kodokan Judo Hall. Funakoshi accepted the invitation and also began to give instruction at the Butokukai Military Arts College in Kyoto and at Keio University in Tokyo. In the early 1930s he established his own school in Tokyo.

Funakoshi practiced calligraphy and signed his work "Shoto," his pen name. Hence, the school where he taught came to be known as Shotokan, "Shoto's School," and the system as Shotokan-ryu. Master Funakoshi never labeled his system as such; the name was adopted by students and outsiders. Rather than teaching a pure system of karate, he combined the teachings of masters Azato and Itosu (of the Shuri-te/Shorin lineage) with elements of the Shorei systems so that the Shotokan-ryu has ended up containing techniques and kata of the two major styles. As a result, modern day Shotokan includes the breathing kata common to the Shorei school and also the lighter, more flexible movements of the Shorin school.

Chojun Miyagi, the founder of Goju-ryu of the Naha-te line, began teaching karate at Kyoto Imperial University in 1928. (He later became coach of the karate department of Kansai University in Osaka.) The Goju-ryu line was further perpetuated in Japan by Gogen Yamaguchi, one of Miyagi's early students, who formed a karate club at Ritsumeikan University (Kyoto) in 1930. Yamaguchi made a significant contribution to Japanese karate by devising a form of free-style sparring that had not existed in the traditional Okinawan Goju system. In 1935 he organized the All-Japan Gojukai Karate-Do Association and became its chief instructor. Sent to Manchuria in 1939 as an intelligence officer, he was captured by the Russians. In 1947 he was repatriated to Japan and continued performing his responsibilities at his Association. A survey in 1967 found some 300,000 people practicing karate under Yamaguchi's system.

The year 1930 saw another Okinawan, Kenwa Mabuni, in Japan. Mabuni, who had studied under both Anko Itosu and Kanryo Higaonna, founded a new system, the Shito-ryu, by combining the techniques of his teachers with other systems. He derived the name "Shito" by joining alternate pronunciations of the Chinese characters for "Ito" and "Higa," from the names of his two teachers. Today Shito-ryu is widely practiced in Japan, under the auspices of the All-Japan Karate Federation.

Hironori Otsuka began studying with Gichin Funakoshi at the Tokyo Sho-tokan in 1926. In 1935 he formed his own school, the Wado-ryu, or "way of peace" style, combining Okinawan karate with elements of traditional Japanese martial arts. Until his death in 1982, he headed the Japan Karate-Do Federation and had several hundred clubs under his authority.

In about 1935, one of Kenwa Mabuni's students of Shito-ryu, Masaru Sawayama, broke away from his master and founded kempo, a combination of karate, judo, and boxing in which the players wear protective equipment. Kempo is organized under the All-Japan Kempo Federation. The founding of kempo gave Japan a total of four main styles of karate—Shotokan-ryu, Goju-ryu, Shito-ryu, and Wado-ryu—and one of kempo.

It might be noted that although Sawayama called his new style "kempo," this was not the first such use of the name in Japan. The Japanese had a long interest in things Chinese, and virtually all fistic arts with any Chinese influence were known by that name. One art that claimed Chinese influence was established in Japan in 1930 and labeled "Shorinji kempo" by its founder, Taizen Takemori. Organizations dedicated to the study of Shorinji kempo were begun after World War II, one of which is the All-Japan Shorinji-ryu Kenkokan Karate Federation, founded by Masahara Hisataka. (Note that this "Shorinji" has no relationship to the Shorin-ryu of Okinawan karate.)

A ban placed on the martial arts of Japan in 1945 by the American occupation forces was rescinded about two years later. The arts began to flourish again, and by 1948 Japanese karate men, mostly students of Gichin Funakoshi, had organized the Japan Karate Association to honor the master. Funakoshi served as honorary chief instructor and his senior student, Isao Obata of Keio University, was named chairman. The karate clubs of Keio, Hosei, Waseda, and Takushoku universities formed the backbone of the organization. Masatoshi Nakayama, a graduate of Takushoku University who had studied Chinese fighting arts in Beijing, was appointed chief instructor. (At the time of this writing, Nakayama is still serving in this capacity at the Japan Karate Association. At the age of 69, he holds the 9th dan rank.)

The newly founded Japan Karate Association was not, however, without its troubles, mostly based upon old college rivalries. Many of the college alumni clubs, including the Keio University group, quit. Even amid these difficulties, though, the Japanese Ministry of Education sanctioned the Japan Karate Association as an educational institution in 1957. That year, the Association held the first All-Japan Karate Championships, which have since become an annual event.

An important school of karate separate from the "big four" schools mentioned so far is the Kyokushinkai karate system, organized by Masutatsu Oyama in 1957. Oyama, a Korean whose real name is Yong I-choi, was born near Gunsan, Korea, in 1922. In 1938 he left home for Japan, where he studied Shotokan karate under Gichin Funakoshi. He then switched to Goju-ryu under Neichu Sou. At this time he heads the Kyokushinkai karate system, which has branches throughout the world.