Читать книгу Quest Biographies Bundle — Books 31–35 - Rosemary Sadlier - Страница 11

William Hamilton Merritt was called “the Father of Canadian Transportation” for his work on the Welland Canal, and he was also a member of the Refugee Slaves’ Friends Society (RSFS) formed in 1852. This organization offered financial, employment, and housing assistance to fugitives, and many local blacks, including Harriet Tubman, were involved with this organization. The first mayor of St. Catharines, Elias Smith Adams, was one of the founders of the RSFS.

In addition to providing immediate relief to “fugitives,” the RSFS worked to send the now free blacks on to Toronto. Many of the surnames of African Canadians who settled for a time in St. Catharines as reflected in the 1861 census, spread throughout the area and continue among contemporary blacks in Ontario today. Names like Ball, Hollingsworth, Miles, and Jackson exist among Toronto families which have long roots in Canada. Other families documented in the 1861 census, such as Johnson, Jones, Miller, Sheffield, and Stewart, have descendants living in St. Catharines, Hamilton, Brantford, Cayuga, Collingwood, Owen Sound, Windsor, and London, Ontario. The following is an 1899 death notice about a black man who settled in Brantford, Ontario. Note his surname and the surnames of his pallbearers — more survivors of the UGRR.

Ex Slave Dead

Peter Johnson Passed Away — Attacked with Blood-Hounds

Peter Johnson aged 78 died Saturday at the hospital. He was born in slavery on a southern plantation, and after reaching maturity made a dash for liberty. He was tracked with blood-hounds, but succeeded in effecting his escape and finally reaching British soil by way of “the underground railroad.”

Johnson lived in Brantford since 1857 and was respected as a hardworking capable citizen. He is buried at Mt. Hope Cemetery. Pallbearers were Messrs. John S. Jones, Thomas Snowden, Nocholas MGormas, Charles Walker, Joseph Purly and Stephen Brown.

— The Brantford Expositor, June 26, 1899

From the entry point at Niagara and their stay in St. Catharines, many travelled further from the border in search of jobs, their own land, or family members. Hamilton was attractive at the time since people could get their start in the ship-building industry there. The need to fell the forests of black walnut, oak, and ash provided employment for black people in “Little Africa” — what towns heavily populated with fugitive slaves were called — until the wood reserves were exhausted.

Harriet Tubman remained in St. Catharines and was one of the black people who was an active member of the interracial RSFS. She was also an executive of the Fugitive Aid Society (FAS) in 1861. She is credited with being the reason for the success of the FAS. Harriet’s work in conducting people from the land of bondage to the land of freedom contributed to the role St. Catharines’ importance with the UGRR. She was obviously interested in making sure that all of “her people” were going to get the start-up or ad hoc assistance they would need.

Harriet’s fourth trip on the Underground Railroad was a turning point for her. She had to travel further than she was used to, so she came to Canada first and began to work with other Underground Railroad “staff” to ensure the safety of her passengers. Frederick Douglass, abolitionist, orator, and a self-emancipated man, gave freedom seekers shelter in his Rochester home; William Still kept records of blacks who needed assistance in order to potentially reunite families, including his own, in Philadelphia; Thomas Garrett routinely escorted passengers across the Christiana River.

Both Still and Garrett documented the work of Harriet Tubman, indicating that she made four trips by 1851 and at least eight more trips by 1856. Harriet claimed to have made nineteen or more trips before the Civil War, probably eleven of those trips beginning and ending in St. Catharines. On one rescue mission, Harriet stopped at what had been the home of a free black to obtain food, shelter, and other assistance. Instead, the home was now occupied by a white man who told Harriet that the previous resident had to leave because he was harbouring runaway slaves. Harriet quickly joined her hidden passengers and moved them to a swamp to avoid detection. She prayed all day, and by dusk a Quaker walked to the edge of the swamp and said that his barn had a wagon with provisions that they could use. This showed the effectiveness of the Underground Railroad communications. Abolitionists were watching for her party, which reinforced Harriet’s faith. By 1854, a formal connection with Garrett ensured that other freedom seekers would not get stranded at this point in their flight.

Harriet felt that something was wrong in Bucktown, and this was confirmed through Underground Railroad communication. Someone who was secretly working with the Underground Railroad passed a message on to someone who could give it to Harriet. Harriet learned that her brothers, Benjamin, Henry, and Robert, were to be sold on December 26, 1854. She arranged for a coded letter to be sent to a literate free black named Jacob Jackson who knew her family. Jackson was under suspicion of helping slaves escape, so to protect the letter writer and the family she wished to rescue, Harriet needed to find an indirect method of communicating her intentions. The letter was “signed” by Jacob Jackson’s adopted free son, who lived in the north, William Henry Jackson. Jackson’s letter was first read by his employer (even free blacks could not expect privacy or respect for their mail) who did not understand the meaning of the letter, even after he consulted others in the community. Finally, Jackson himself was summoned and given his own mail to read. It stated in part:

Read my letter to the old folks, and give my love to them, and tell my brothers to be always watching unto prayer, and when the good ship of Zion comes along, to be ready to step on board.

Jackson, having no parents or brothers, pretended he did not understand it when questioned by his white overseer, but he immediately told Harriet’s brothers to get ready because Harriet was coming to get them. On Christmas Eve, Harriet met her brothers near Ben and Rit’s cabin with three other freedom seekers: John Chase, Peter Jackson, and Jane Kane. They knew they could not expect Rit to be quiet if she knew that Harriet was there — she would be too excited! They did, however, let Ben know that they were leaving, and he discreetly brought food to the group as they hid during the day. He covered his eyes with a bandanna so that he would truthfully be able to say, when questioned by his owner, that he had not “seen” his sons. He knew he would be interrogated and he wanted to be ready. After travelling the 100 miles to Wilmington, they were assisted by Garrett. They arrived in St. Catharines in early 1855.

A portrait of Frederick Douglass, included as one of the “Heroes of the Colored Race.”

Courtesy of the Library of Congress, LC/USZC2–1720.

Harriet was quoted in an 1858 St. Catharines newspaper, saying, “I wouldn’t trust Uncle Sam with my people no longer…. I brought ’em all clar off to Canada.” But Harriet and others were more like exiles than immigrants — they were forced to leave the land of their birth because of the severity of southern slavery and the risks of remaining in the north. Harriet longed for the familiar aspects of her life, but could not have the freedom she desired in the country she was from. While in St. Catharines she said, “[We are] in a foreign country among strangers. We would rather stay in our native land, if we could be as free there as we are here.”

Passengers on the Underground Railroad often wore disguises to further throw off any suspicion. Sometimes women dressed as men, or a light-coloured slave might assume the role of a slave owner in order to travel with other darker-coloured freedom seekers. If someone was light skinned, they might be darkened. Fancy outfits belonging to free blacks might be borrowed to give the freedom seeker wearing the clothes the look of an affluent person. There were instances when a disguise might not have been enough to escape the reach of a search party, and individuals are known to have been hidden away until the intensity of the search seemed to be over, sometimes for months, before they could continue on their journey to freedom. According to oral history from descendants, particularly the late Marlene Wilkins, Harriet often wore several layers of clothing, especially pantaloons, in order to protect herself from the cold, perhaps to appear heavier, but also to protect herself from the tracking dogs. If a dog were to chase Harriet as she was travelling with a party of escaping slaves, and if it were to bite her, the dog would only be left with her clothing. She was concerned that these hounds not have the opportunity to taste her blood since she would then not be able to successfully conduct on the Underground Railroad — they would track her to death.

Harriet may have appeared as a simple old woman with her noisy chickens, as a slave travelling further south for her assumed master, or just as one of the many slaves in the area. Her demeanour and the way she carried herself were also important in her success — she would not have allowed herself to outwardly seem afraid or worried as her papers were being checked or as someone who could identify her came near. Her belief in the good of her cause gave her the resources to deal with obstacles. But it took more than Harriet Tubman’s confidence — she made all the necessary arrangements that she could in advance of her departure. Her bag carried the essentials for her trip: from the sharpened clam shells for protection or influence through to the tranquillizer to quiet babies. She knew what safe houses she was aiming to reach and where there would be food for her group. She had a plan for extra clothing for disguises or warmth and knew where she could find the “stockholders” of the UGRR — those who would provide her with funds or actual train tickets. She was the master of communications and worked her trusted and potential connections to the best of her ability.

In order to get to Canada, Harriet did not always follow the same route, and sometimes she actually travelled south in order to avoid suspicion if she felt she had been identified. She might pre-arrange to meet her group at the beginning of the month or during a new moon, as the lack of light would make the group more difficult to see. If enough money was available, passage would be purchased on the Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore Railroads, or water routes and canal trenches could also be utilized. Harriet and her party would primarily be using their own two feet, and often wore out more than one pair of shoes on their escape. She is known to have used stations in Camden, Dover, Blackbird, Middleton, New Castle, Wilmington, Laurel, Milford, Millsborough, Concord, Seaford, Smyma, and Delaware City. She also used stations in Pennsylvania and New York, including Syracuse, Auburn, Rochester, and Niagara Falls.

Harriet is known to have crossed on the actual railroad suspension bridge from Niagara Falls, New York, into Niagara Falls, Ontario, which has been documented at least once. Being such a well patrolled site, and given that Harriet used many routes to transport her human cargo, it is unlikely that she made the suspension bridge her only point of entry into Canada. The Niagara River, away from the falls, is rather narrow, and many UGRR stations existed all along the shores of Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. Some accounts indicate that UGRR crossings included Astibula and Port Albino, sites closer to the Fort Erie/Buffalo area. There was also a well-organized ferry crossing between Buffalo, New York, and Fort Erie, Ontario, which could have been used or that provided a route to follow. The Native people crossed the river on rafts at several points that might have been used by freedom seekers working with indigenous people. Harriet and other determined people would have to assess their situations and decide whether to try a familiar or new crossing point.

Because freedom seekers felt protected in her company and because Harriet had been able to avoid recapture or death, she came to be referred to as “Moses,” freeing her people, and she earned the respect of whites working in the abolition movement. Thomas Garrett said of her, “If she had been a white woman, she would have been heralded as the greatest woman of her age.” Her charm and perseverance also made her credible and gained her allies from among the elite in society. The spiritual song “Go Down Moses” could not be sung by blacks in the south for fear of exposing Harriet’s nickname, but it is a beautiful song full of the indignation of enslaved people:

Oh go down, Moses,

Way down in Egypt’s land.

Tell old Pharaoh,

Let my people go.

Oh Pharaoh said he would go cross,

Let my people go,

And don’t get lost in de wilderness,

Let my people go.

Oh go down Moses,

Way down in Egypt’s land.

Tell old Pharaoh,

Let my people go.

You may hinder me here, but you can’t up dere,

Let my people go,

He sits in de Hebben and answers prayer,

Let my people go.

Oh go down Moses,

Way down in Egypt’s land.

Tell old Pharaoh,

Let my people go.

A famous photo of Harriet Tubman. Known as the “Moses of Her People,” she served the Union Army as a nurse, scout, and a spy during the Civil War.

Courtesy of the Library of Congress.

Others feel that Harriet’s success in rescuing enslaved people may have inspired the spiritual “Swing Low, Sweet Chariot.” The chorus suggests that freedom will be yours if you get on board:

Swing low, sweet chariot

Coming for to carry me home.

Swing low, sweet chariot,

Coming for to carry me home.

Harriet had a pattern of working to earn enough money to finance travel into slave states during the summer months, followed by attempting rescues in the fall; working during the winter and rescuing in the spring. In November 1856, Harriet returned to the Bucktown area to bring another group to the north. One member of her group was Josiah Bailey who had cost his new owner $1,000 down and $1,000 to be paid later. To learn respect for his new owner, despite being a loyal worker without a behaviour problem, Josiah was flogged on the very first day of the new ownership arrangement. Consequently, Josiah decided to run, joining Bill, Peter Pennington, Eliza Nokey, and one other on board Harriet’s train. A reward of $1,500 was offered for Josiah’s return, $800 for Peter, $300 for Bill, and $1,200 for Harriet Tubman. The reward for Harriet was higher than the others because of the significant losses she had caused slave owners in the area.

By June 1859, the Society of Slaveholders decided at their nationwide convention that there should be insurance policies to protect the slaveholders against the loss of their “property” through slaves escaping. This Society also offered a reward of $40,000 (equivalent to more than half a million dollars in current dollars) for the capture of Harriet Tubman. Harriet Tubman was one of the most wanted people in the United States because of her success in conducting people to freedom. The number of people in her party varied from a small group of three up to a group of thirty-nine. Discipline was very important to the success of the rescues. On one rescue mission, Harriet hid in the woods with her passengers and watched as her pursuers stood guard over a well-travelled road. Harriet would later say, “And how we laughed: We was de fools, and dey the wise men; but we wasn’t fools enough to go down de high road in de broad daylight.”

Harriet learned that her parents were suspected of having assisted with the escape of some “fugitive” slaves and were likely to be arrested. She had waited to rescue them because she knew that they would probably not be sold further south because they would not earn much money on the auction block now that they were so old. With money from the New York Anti-Slavery office, Harriet went to Maryland and made a horse-drawn vehicle out of the remnants of an old buggy, boards, wheels, and a harness out of straw. Her frail parents were thus able to ride all night out of the Bucktown area with some of the belongings they did not want to part with; Rit prized her feather bedtick (comforter) and Ben wanted to keep his broadaxe and other tools. In southern Delaware, Harriet was able to board a train to Wilmington, where Garrett gave Harriet enough money to buy their train passage to Canada. Harriet now had freed all of her family members except for one sister and her children.

Due to the increasing risk to Harriet because of the growing concerns between the north and south regarding slave ownership, Harriet was advised not to attempt any more rescues. Upon making themselves free, former slaves sometimes gave themselves new names in order to conceal their identities in case a bounty hunter came by. Harriet’s brothers gave themselves the name “Stewart,” perhaps after a shipbuilder in the Bucktown area, or after a reasonable overseer. Another well known “Steward” in the Rochester, New York, area may have inspired their selection of this surname. As a distinguished gentleman, Austin Steward was a prominent social and religious leader of the black community who spoke out on issues such as the passing of the Fugitive Slave Act. He had worked for a time in Canada, so his name would have been recognized by members of the black community north of the border too.

Often former slaves gave themselves new names that reflected their new status as self-emancipated people. The surname “Freeman” was often assumed. Slaves would name themselves after political figures who had been supportive of anti-slavery measures, or they would assume names that seemed usual unlike the single, sometimes Biblical names they had been assigned during slavery. Someone known as “Cicero” in Virginia might have become Charles Johnson in Philadelphia and possibly John Freeman in Canada. Some gave themselves names that may have appealed to them. For example, in the 1861 census for St. Catharines, there is a black individual who calls himself Andrew Prettyman!

Blacks entering Canada as fugitives from the repressive American laws or as freedom seekers were cautioned not to tell anyone what their true identity was or to speak about where they were originally from or of the family they had left behind. This was to protect them from bounty hunters and their agents who might be searching for them within Canada. Escape stories might be passed down within families, but the fear of recapture by survivors of the Underground Railroad was very real. Some survivors kept their freedom papers, if they had been granted their freedom, just in case of a problem or an opportunity to return. Sometimes individuals took their escape stories with them to the grave. Similarly, those persons who may have provided ongoing or ad hoc assistance to the Underground Railroad also kept their information to themselves.

Harriet kidnapped the daughter of one of her brothers, or according to oral history, Harriet took an orphaned child, the eight-year-old Margaret, and boarded her with a politician in Auburn, New York, named William Seward. Harriet may have felt that she would be able to ensure a secure and prosperous childhood for Margaret, unlike the experiences that Harriet had at the same age. Some researchers wonder if this Margaret could have been a child of Harriet Tubman, since she took such an interest in her. However, the child is described as being light-skinned, and since neither Harriet nor John are described as being light, the child may or may not have had a family connection. It is possible that Harriet was impregnated by her owner or that the child was actually a niece. The African tradition was to care for the community, so it is also possible that Harriet was acquainted with the child’s mother or was asked to care for this child by another enslaved woman wanting to see the best for her.

Towards the end of 1858, Harriet moved her parents to Auburn and made her home there because of Margaret, because of the assistance of Seward — now the Governor of New York and Harriet’s strongest supporter — and because Auburn was becoming a centre for abolitionists and the women’s suffrage movement. St. Catharines may have ceased to have personal appeal to Harriet because her growing awareness of the enormity of the slave issue made her feel that a major approach in co-operation with sympathetic whites was needed in order to stop slavery and increase tolerance. Harriet may have come to realize that as important as her assistance to a small group might be, it was time to heal the problem by ending slavery. In nineteen life-risking missions, Harriet had rescued, and ensured a livelihood, for over 300 people, but there were thousands of others still suffering. Even if she spent the rest of her life conducting people to safety, she would never be able to free them all.

A movement or political reform that would end slavery had great appeal. William Seward was introduced to Harriet by Frederick Douglass. Seward was a Republican who had opposed the Fugitive Slave Act. He was close to winning a presidential election, but his stand on the John Brown issue at Harpers Ferry (a planned slave rebellion) later cost him the win. Seward was able ensure that Harriet was able to bid on the land, and some reports indicate that he loaned Harriet the money to buy property in Auburn which Harriet later repaid with the proceeds from the sale of the Sarah Bradford book, Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman.

During an 1860 visit to Troy, New York, to see a cousin, Harriet Tubman learned that a slave, Charles Nalle, had been followed by his owner. She postponed her travel to a scheduled anti-slavery meeting in Boston she had been told about by Thomas Gerrit and used her time to alert the community about this man who was already detained.

Over time, people who were slaves began to look like people who were not enslaved. Breeding of Africans and Europeans produced slaves who were half African and half European, who then appeared less and less African-looking as the as the interracial procreation went on. Charles Nalle was a slave who was one-eighth black, as a child of a slave who was one-quarter black and her white master. He ran from his Culpepper County, Virginia, plantation to join his wife. The agent who was sent to find him in Troy, New York, was his half brother. They had the same father, looked alike, but one was a slave and one was free. Nalle was being held in the commissioner’s office when Harriet managed to grab him while rousing the crowd outside the building, and she put Nalle onto a waiting boat. On the other side of the river, Nalle was recaptured but freed again by the crowd, and Harriet obtained a ride to safety for him on a passing wagon. Nalle later returned to Troy with money collected from the community to buy his freedom.

Harriet’s last known trip on the Underground Railroad may have been the one she made in December 1860 when she tried to find her sister in Maryland. She discovered that her sister had died, so Harriet took seven others with her instead.