Читать книгу Quest Biographies Bundle — Books 31–35 - Rosemary Sadlier - Страница 5

The practice of hiring out slaves to other owners also impacted couples, since legal unions for enslaved people were not allowed. Some “marriages” between slaves amounted to one or two annual visits a year because the partners might be owned by masters living 100 miles or more apart or by masters who had to shift their slaves to those areas where there was work for them to do. Maryland had a law that stated that there were no rights for blacks that a white person had to respect, which included marriage vows. The very ability to choose your own partner and consider yourself married, to “jump over the broom,” was a fortunate position — to live with your partner was less likely unless you were both free or both enslaved on the same plantation.

Harriet Tubman was fortunate to have both of her parents in her life as well as her siblings since each of her parents’ owners had married. Harriet Tubman was hired out to work on other plantations because the economic factors in the north had changed. Where once the crops grown in the Maryland area were highly labour intensive, such as harvesting tobacco, by the nineteenth century the focus shifted to grain and timber for the growing ship-building industry in Baltimore for both local consumption and export. Neither of these products required the ongoing labour of a full complement of slaves.

This economic reality, coupled with the religious imperative to free enslaved people, facilitated a rise in the free black population — formerly enslaved Africans who were manumitted, or given ownership of themselves. They were free to hire themselves out to those planters who had need of temporary assistance. It also made the sale of one’s property, one’s slaves, to the demanding needs of the south in the sugar and cotton plantations, very lucrative. Following the War of 1812, European products increased competition, further pressuring the American economy and making the lure of selling one’s slaves seem even more appealing.

“Slavery is terrible for men; but it is far more terrible for women. Superadded to the burden common to all, they have wrongs, and sufferings, and mortifications peculiarly their own.”

— Harriet Jacobs,

Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl

The experience of being a slave was different for men and women. Initially, most enslaved Africans were male in order for them to carry out the extremely hard work that required great strength. Over time, African women were included to provide both company for the male slaves and for the potential to have an ongoing supply of slaves. Until 1808, the reliance on American-born enslaved people was small, since up until that time it was possible to obtain robust young slaves directly from a slave auction. Female slaves were sold at a reduced rate, so they were favoured for their ability to do agricultural work in order to make up for the male labour assigned to building and carpentry, blacksmithing, and clearing fields.

Both male and female slaves might be given the same work on a very large plantation, which created another layer of loss for the enslaved person. Traditionally in Africa women would hoe a field. A woman’s work in the field would be for the benefit of her children and her community. What did it mean for a man to hoe a field? How would he have felt in doing this? What did it mean for a woman to assume some of the more demanding work, such as when Tubman would later work with her male relatives cutting and preparing timber? How were the traditional roles of men and women changed during enslavement?

In addition to being subject to the needs of their enslavers in relation to the type of work they had to perform, enslaved African women were subject to having their bodies made available to their owners. It did not matter if the female was only a young girl or a married woman, her body was owned by the enslaver. Enslaved women were forced into premature sexual knowledge due to the advances and rapes made against them by their owners and then subject to abuse by the owner’s wife who would blame the enslaved woman for the advances made on the slave. Marriage was no protection. So common was the rape of married women that many enslaved African men hoped to find a mate on another plantation lest they have to witness the humiliation, harm, or violence perpetuated against their partners should they be fancied by the owner or the object of persecution of the slave owner’s wife.

Enslaved women might be enticed by the promise of freedom for themselves or their children. They also could have threats made against them or their family members if they refused to be willing participants in an emotionless physical relationship. Should the enslaved woman wish to marry someone she did love, it may not be granted by the owner. If an offer came in from a free black to buy her freedom so that she could leave, it might also be refused. In Missouri, one enslaved African teenaged woman’s story centred on her final decision to kill her owner, Robert Newsome. Celia (also known as Margaret Garner) had been sexually abused to the point where she hit her owner in the head, then kept a fire going all night to consume his body. At the time, it was decided that she had “no reason” for killing her master. She was pregnant with her third child by him.

Pregnancy might provide the enslaved woman with additional food or potentially lighter work, but did not free her from being punished should she displease the overseer. Special pits were dug so that the full belly of the pregnant slave would fit into the hole while she lay down with her back exposed so that she could be whipped without harming her growing child. Where motherhood was a positive community event in African societies, during enslavement it was a bit different. The mother might be removed from her child early on, or at some point see her child sold off, perhaps never to be seen again, or might see her own daughter raped. Enslaved women bore a child almost every two years, with lengthy nursing preventing more frequent conception. The mother may have seen several of her children die in infancy due often to poor nutrition, infection, or disease.

From first contact, where African women were captured, examined, and sold, any number of men might rape the potential slave. It was felt to be their right, part of their entitlement in assessing the potential productivity of their purchase. Once sold, forced encounters and/or alliances grew between owners and enslaved women, women who hoped to gain certain advantages for themselves, their families, and, more importantly, for their children. Pregnancy, whether due to rape, marriage, or consensual union had the same result for the children in most of the United States. Laws were passed that made the child of an enslaved mother a slave no matter if the father was a free black or a white person. Some children born of these circumstances would be sent north to live as free people or to Europe to be highly educated as other children of the same white father. However, it was more common for the owner’s children to become house servants in his own home, or willed to a close family member.

Due to the way that enslaved African women were forcibly taken, the children the women bore could not just be their child, but could also be their sibling, their grandchild, or their cousin. It was about violence against the body, control, and incest. As long as the child was at least one sixteenth black, the child was considered to be black, and therefore subject to enslavement.

Since early African arrivals were initially considered indentured servants, they were allowed to serve their terms of indenture and then petition to be free just like the English, Scottish, and Germans were allowed. Should there be any children, they could be free as well. The laws quickly changed so that indenture did not end and enslavement was formally established.

Following a notable case in Virginia, a woman born of a free white father and an African mother claimed her freedom through her status as the daughter of a wealthy white man, and did not serve her term. By 1662, the concept of Partus sequitur ventrum, a legal doctrine, was applied so that any child born of an enslaved woman would be a slave. This set the tone for this type of relationship and made it possible for white men to avoid having any responsibility for the children they sired with African women. Not only was this a financial savings for the owners, it reduced the potential for scandal and relegated their promiscuity to the plantation, not “refined” society.

Because enslaved African women were subject to the confinement and control of their enslavers and their sexuality was fantasized and “available,” black women were seen as being more willing to be sexual in relation to white women, who were seen to be “pure.” Many wealthy slave owners alienated their white wives in their pursuit of and involvement with enslaved African women. The children born of these unions were sometimes treated with special care by the male owner who might not be able to bear selling them. However, should the wife remain in the picture, her treatment of the “other woman,” the enslaved African and her “mulatto” child, was not so charitable.

Having the lighter skinned slaves in the house to do the lighter work and the darker skinned slaves in the fields was due to the fact that the lighter ones were the owner’s children. It also had the effect of further colourizing class. In trying to find ways to further care for one’s own children, white plantation owners supported the establishment of the “black” universities where their offspring could be educated.

Having children bound the enslaved woman to the place where her children were. It made it more difficult for her to contemplate escape since her children might not be easy to spirit away from the home of the owner, the care of the older slave women, or the glare of the mistress of the plantation. Similarly, having the enslaved male marry was seen as means of tying him to the plantation, although it made it difficult for him to attempt to protect his wife from violent threats to her — both physically and sexually — as he could not betray his master. What did this do to his sense of self as a protector when he could not intervene in the treatment of his wife?

Part of slave resistance included enslaved people’s finding ways to worship, celebrate, or socialize with each other. Using remote locations, invited through secret communications, they could have services or “parties” that would serve as an opportunity to either practice traditional spirituality or to have some fun, dance, and sing. These brief times away allowed for some courting and friendships to be extended. It provided fleeting moments of freedom. It informed those who would be able to choose a partner.

Harriet chose free black man John Tubman to be her partner. She may have become acquainted with him as he travelled or through one of the secret meetings in the woods. After their union, it would appear that no children were born to them. It is possible that a head injury may well have affected Harriet Tubman’s ability to adequately produce the hormones necessary for reproduction. Without having children to worry about leaving behind, and with her small frame built up through hard work as well as her knowledge of how to determine directions and survive outdoors, Harriet was as well positioned to run away as any man.