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Physically, the flower heads of this family resemble umbrellas (which is why I like the name Umbelliferae!) It can be difficult to distinguish one plant in this family from another if you are not a botanist; most of their multi-flowered heads, in shades of off-white or yellow, are similar.

This particular family is regarded as hazardous, many of the oils it produces containing ketones or phenolic ethers, though the evidence is not conclusive regarding ketones – not all are hazardous.

Family Properties and Effects The Apiaceae family seed oils are extremely balancing to the digestive system (hence their use in aperitifs). Many are also uterine stimulants and may be abortive in action if misused.

Caution Some contain phenols or ketones and need to be used with care, especially on pregnant women and babies. There is divided opinion regarding the toxicity of carvone (see chapter 3) and until the position is clarified, it may be best to treat all with care (most Apiaceae are best passed on to the public through aromatherapists).

Anethum graveolens – seed (dill) 1.3–1.5%

Dill flowers are not off-white, but bright yellow, the fields presenting an attractive sight.

Special Properties and Effects Dill seed oil is in babies’ gripe water. It helps the flow of bile, thus aiding digestion, and is useful for catarrhal conditions like bronchitis.

Caution It is believed to be neurotoxic because of its high ketone content (mostly dextro-carvone – yet this can be very low in some dill oils); however, it is also believed that not all carvone molecules are hazardous¹⁸ (see carvone in chapter 3).

Angelica archangelica – seed/roots (angelica) 0.03 0.04%

Although the whole plant is therapeutic, the roots appear to be the part traditionally most used to promote good health. An essential oil it taken from the seeds and both an absolute and an essential oil are produced from the roots. The root oil (most utilized in aromatherapy) contains coumarins, including bergapten (see chapter 3 and chapter 6).

Special Properties and Effects Angelica’s main attribute is its effectiveness against insomnia and nervous exhaustion. It is also a neuro-digestive tonic.

Caution Because of the coumarin content in both root and seed oils, do not use before ultraviolet exposure.

Carum carvi – seed (caraway) 3–5%

Production of caraway seed oil is increasing, especially in Holland. Here, apart from being exported, the oil is sprayed onto stored potatoes, to prevent them from sprouting. Caraway oil contains the ketone dextro-carvone (up to 50 per cent).

Special Properties and Effects Its anticatarrhal properties indicate caraway as an excellent oil for the respiratory system and it is one of the best oils for combating vertigo.

Caution Very few authors consider caraway to be hazardous, even though it contains carvone (see chapter 3). Caraway contains only a trace of the phenolic ether, anethole.

Coriandrum sativum – leaves/seed (coriander) 0.8–1%

Coriander seed oil seems to be one umbellifer which has no known contra-indications against its use, possibly because it has a significant alcohol content (60–80 per cent including linalool – sometimes referred to as coriandrol). The leaf oil (not much used) has an equally significant content of aldehydes.

Special Properties and Effects Coriander seed oil is antiinflammatory, relieving rheumatism and arthritis; its antibacterial properties are useful against colds and flu. It is an effective stimulant to the nervous system.

Daucus carota – seed (carrot) 1.5%

The carrot plant grows wild in abundance in France, those with orange roots and those with yellowish-white roots (also used to feed cattle) being cultivated for essential oil. Carrot is possibly the prettiest umbellifer, having earned itself the title of ‘Queen Anne’s lace’. As the seed begins to form, the head of the plant changes completely, ‘fluffing’ out and curving inwards – resembling its other common name, ‘Bird’s Nest’.

Like coriander, carrot oil is high in alcohols (40–60 per cent, mostly carotol). It contains a small amount of asarone (a phenolic ether) but no ketones.

See chapter 8 for fixed oil of carrot.

FIGURE 4.1: The early flowering stage of carrot

Special Properties and Effects Carrot seed oil is tonic and stimulant to both liver and kidneys. Hormonal in action, it helps the pituitary gland to regulate the production of thyroxine and the release of ova. It does not appear to be contra-indicated in pregnancy (perhaps because of its high alcohol content and hormonal action). It is effective on skin complaints such as eczema or a blotchy complexion (as in acne rosacea).

Foeniculum vulgare var. dulce – seed (sweet fennel) 3–5%

The wild fennel plant and a cultivated sub-species (capillaceum) are plants which have been used medicinally for centuries,¹⁹ but these produce bitter fennel essential oil, not used in aromatherapy. Sweet fennel exists only as a cultivated plant and yields quite a powerful oil, containing a small percentage of the ketone, fenchone, and about 50 per cent of a phenolic ether (trans-anethole). This form of anethole is 15 times less toxic than cis-anethole (see phenols in chapter 3).

Special Properties and Effects Excellent for the promotion of milk flow in breastfeeding mothers (see chapter 11), it acts as a slight analgesic on muscles. It is helpful for menstrual irregularities and the menopause, due to its hormonal-type action.

Caution Sweet fennel oil should be treated with respect because of its phenolic content; although not an aggressive oil,²⁰ it has been suggested as being best not used during pregnancy.

Levisticum officinale – roots (lovage) 0.1–0.6%

An essential oil (reputed to be probably the most powerful natural flavour material ever encountered) is taken from the whole plant (above ground);²¹ the roots produce an absolute and an essential oil – the distilled root oil should be chosen for use in aromatherapy.

The plant above ground is credited with being an emmenagogue (mentioned by Mrs Grieve²² and Richard Mabey²³). There is no reference to the root oil being emmenagogic in any herbal book of note, or documents on toxicity in the UK or in France. However, it is accredited with this property in one or two modern British and American books on aromatherapy; none says why.

Approximately half the oil is made up of chemicals called phthalides,²⁴ about which not much is written or known. 3-butylidene phthalide in lovage oil is identical to a lactone found in another oil.²⁵

Special Properties and Effects Detoxifying to the digestive system, lovage root essential oil is stimulating to the excretory and nervous systems, is anticatarrhal and expectorant.

Caution Lovage root may be a skin sensitizer due to its coumarin content.

Petroselinum crispum or P. sativum – leaves/seed (parsley – curly and flat leaved varieties respectively) up to 7% (seed); 0.02–0.3% (leaves)

Parsley, a favourite culinary herb, has an essential oil in both its leaves and its seeds (it can be difficult to ascertain whether leaf oil is exclusively from the leaves), and an extract can be made from its roots. Parsley is grown extensively in France for the production of dried leaves, which have to be of the highest quality and at their greenest. As a result, essential oil is usually extracted from second grade plants (the quality of the oil is not affected) or from a second cutting when the plants are starting to go to seed (altering the chemical structure of the oil). There is a good market for the seeds for cultivation and the surplus stock of older seeds is used for seed oil, which appears to be the more toxic because of the presence of the phenolic ethers myristicin (a neurotoxic hallucinogen) and apiole (a strong abortifacient). The aroma of the leaf oil (also containing myristicin) is much more like that of the herb itself and it is high in terpenes.

Special Properties and Effects Parsley leaf, or herb, oil is known mainly for its diuretic properties; it is also antispasmodic.

The seed oil is an emmenagogue, uterine tonic and an effective aid for circulatory troubles connected with menstruation. In strong dosage it is abortive and should not be used by pregnant women.²⁶

Caution Unfortunately, many books give the effects of leaf and seed oil as the same. Also, many suppliers are not certain whether their oil is leaf or seed. Indeed, unless specified, leaf distillation can be from plants with some seed development. Only qualified aromatherapists should use parsley oil and even then, with great respect (there are other oils giving similar effects, which could be used instead).

Pimpinella anisum – seed (aniseed or green aniseed) 2–3%

Two plants have the common name aniseed – the one named above and Illicium verum (Chinese star anise – now in many supermarkets), from a totally different family. Three books each give a different name for this family – Illiciaceae, Magnolaceae and Schisandraceae! Both aniseeds appear to yield similar oils chemically, having a high content of the phenolic ether, trans-anethole (sometimes as high as 90 per cent in Pimpinella anisum), necessitating care in use, even though trans-anethole is less toxic than cis-anethole.

Special Properties and Effects Aniseed oils are antispasmodic, helpful to the respiratory system and stimulant to the reproductive system. Their hormonal action helps to regularize the menstrual cycle and increase the milk flow in breastfeeding women.

Caution Aniseed should be used with advice from an aromatherapist. It would be prudent not to use either oil on young children or during pregnancy.

Another member of the Illiaceae family, Illicium lanceolatum, has as its common name ‘Japanese star anise’, but this is poisonous.²⁷