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When a continuous‐time system is connected to a computer via analog‐to‐digital and digital‐to‐analog converters at input and output, respectively, we need to find a discrete‐time equivalent of the continuous‐time system that describes the relationship between the system's input and its output at certain time instants (sampling times for ). This process is called sampling the continuous‐time system. Using zero‐order‐hold sampling, where the corresponding analog signals are kept constant over the sampling period, we will have the following discrete‐time equivalent for the continuous‐time system of (2.3) and (2.4) [18]:

(2.32)

(2.33)

where

(2.34)

(2.35)