Читать книгу Structural Analysis and Synthesis - Stephen M. Rowland - Страница 4

1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Strike and dip of a plane.Figure 1.2 Trend and plunge of an apparent dip.Figure 1.3 Azimuth and quadrant methods of expressing compass directions.Figure 1.4 Pitch (or rake) of a line in an inclined plane.Figure 1.5 Measuring the strike or trend of a structural symbol using a prot...Figure 1.6 Topographic map showing linear ridges and the line to measure str...Figure P1.1 Base map on which to plot structural symbols in Problem 1.4.Figure P1.2 Map with structural symbols to be read back in Problem 1.5.Figure P1.3 Topographic map showing linear ridges with uneven slopes to meas...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Horizontal layer in a stream valley. (a) Block diagram. (b) Map v...Figure 2.2 Vertical layer strikes perpendicular across a ridge and valley. (...Figure 2.3 Inclined layer strikes perpendicular across a horizontal ridge. (...Figure 2.4 Inclined layer dipping upstream that flows 90° to strike. (a) Blo...Figure 2.5 Layer dipping parallel to stream gradient (perpendicular strike)....Figure 2.6 Layer dipping downstream more gently than the stream gradient wit...Figure 2.7 Layer dipping downstream more steeply than the stream gradient; s...Figure 2.8 Example of structure contours on a structural surface.Figure 2.9 Block diagram (a) and structure‐contour map (b) of a subsurface f...Figure 2.10 Solution of a three‐point problem using a combination of graphic...Figure 2.11 Technique for drawing a topographic profile. (a) Draw section li...Figure 2.12 Technique for drawing a cross section. The top diagram is a map ...Figure 2.13 Determination of outcrop pattern using structure contours. (a) T...Figure 2.14 (a) Structure‐contour map from Figure 2.13 shifted such that the...Figure 2.15 Determination of outcrop pattern of a gently bent surface using ...Figure 2.16 Technique for determining the orientation of a plane from its ou...Figure 2.17 Neogene units in the Bree Creek area. Tg = Conglomerate; Thd = S...Figure 2.18 Trigonometric relationships used for determining stratigraphic t...Figure 2.19 Determining stratigraphic thickness t on slopes. (a) Lengths h a...Figure 2.20 Three combinations of sloping topography and dipping layers, wit...Figure 2.21 Technique for determining stratigraphic thickness by orthographi...Figure P2.1 Map of an area showing contacts and topographic contours to be u...Figure P2.2 Cutout to produce a block model of the area in Figure P2.1 to vi...Figure P2.3 Base map showing locations of wells to be used in Problem 2.2.Figure P2.4 Topographic contour map to be used in Problem 2.3 showing locati...Figure P2.5 Topographic base map with outcrop locations to be used in the so...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Main elements of the equal‐area lower hemisphere projection.Figure 3.2 Nets used for stereographic projection. (a) Stereographic net or ...Figure 3.3 Lower‐hemisphere view of the projection of a plane striking north...Figure 3.4 Projection of a plane striking 315° and dipping 60°SW. (a) Plotti...Figure 3.5 Projection of a line that plunges 32°/160° (S20E). (a) Plotting o...Figure 3.6 Projection of a plane (N–S, 40°W) and the pole to the plane. (a) ...Figure 3.7 Projection of a pole (point 10^o/S16E) to the plane (dashed line) ...Figure 3.8 Projection of the line of intersection of two planes (322°, 65°SW...Figure 3.9 Measuring the 40° angle between two lines (points) in a plane (gr...Figure 3.10 Pitch of a line in a plane. (a) Block diagram showing a lineatio...Figure 3.11 Determination of true dip from strike and apparent dip. (a) Mark...Figure 3.12 Determination of strike and dip from two apparent dips. (a) Appa...Figure P3.1 Equal‐area net.

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Some terms for describing the geometry of folds. (a) Profile view...Figure 4.2 Profile plane and the axial surface of folds.Figure 4.3 Examples of folds showing crestal and axial traces. (a) Map view....Figure 4.4 Block diagrams showing synclines and anticlines.Figure 4.5 Block diagram showing a synform and an antiform.Figure 4.6 (a) Symmetric and (b) asymmetric folds with varying amplitudes.Figure 4.7 Three‐dimensional folded surface. (a) Cylindrical folds. (b) Non‐...Figure 4.8 Terms used to describe interlimb angles of folds.Figure 4.9 Block diagram showing inclined folds that are overturned.Figure 4.10 Eastward plunging folds. (a) Map view. (b) Block diagram.Figure 4.11 (a) Vertical, (b) reclined, and (c) recumbent folds.Figure 4.12 Construction of dip isogons. (a) Drawing tangents at a predeterm...Figure 4.13 Classification of folds based on the characteristics of dip isog...Figure 4.14 Westward‐plunging folds. (a) Map view. (b) Block diagram.Figure 4.15 Southward‐plunging, overturned folds. (a) Map view. (b) Block di...Figure 4.16 Basic technique for drawing a geologic structure section perpend...Figure 4.17 Geologic map and corresponding structure section drawn at an ang...Figure 4.18 Arc method for drawing structure sections of folded beds. (a) Ge...Figure 4.19 Down‐plunge viewing of a map (top) to see the fold profile (bott...Figure 4.20 Method for constructing a fold profile using down‐plunge project...Figure P4.1 Cutout to construct a block diagram for Problem 4.1.Figure P4.2 Maps for use in Problem 4.2.Figure P4.3 Cutout to construct a block diagram for Problem 4.3.Figure P4.4 Map and topographic profile for use in Problem 4.4.Figure P4.5 Map and topographic profile for use in Problem 4.5.Figure P4.6 Geologic outcrop map for use in Problem 4.6.

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 The β‐axis/fold axis is the intersection of planes tangent to a f...Figure 5.2 Beta diagram. The great circles represent four bedding attitudes ...Figure 5.3 Pi diagram. The π‐circle is the great circle common to the four p...Figure 5.4 Equal‐area net showing the use of a pole plotter. The constructio...Figure 5.5 Block diagram of folds showing the profile plane, axial plane, an...Figure 5.6 Equal‐area net plot. The axial plane is the great circle common t...Figure 5.7 Method for constructing the profile view of a fold exposed on a f...Figure 5.8 Equal‐area net plot. The Axial Plane is the great circle common t...Figure 5.9 Simple equal‐area diagrams showing orientation of the folds. Ax. ...Figure 5.10 Point diagram with 50 attitudes plotted.Figure 5.11 Technique for counting points for the purpose of contouring. (a)...Figure 5.12 Results of counting the points in Figure 5.10.Figure 5.13 Deriving the π‐circle. (a) Contours drawn on a point grid. (b) S...Figure 5.14 Kalsbeek counting grid.Figure 5.15 Method for counting poles and posting the totals on a Kalsbeek c...Figure 5.16 Profiles and corresponding contoured π‐diagrams of variously sha...Figure P5.1 Pole plotter to be used with equal‐area net.Figure P5.2 Diagram for use in Problem 5.1.Figure P5.3 Pole counter for use with Problem 5.4.Figure P5.4 Grid for pole counter for use with Problem 5.4.Figure P5.5 Kalsbeek counting grid for use with Problem 5.4.

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Rotation of three coplanar lines on a net. (a) Oblique view of li...Figure 6.2 Two‐tilt problem. (a) Block diagram showing the current relations...Figure 6.3 Drill‐hole problem. (a) Drill core. (b) Oblique view of the proje...Figure 6.4 Part A of drill‐hole solution. (a) Plot of orientations of holes ...Figure 6.5 Part B of drill‐hole solution. (a) Plot of orientations of holes ...Figure 6.6 The steps required to unfold a fold on a net. (a) Plotting fold a...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Antiform showing axial planar cleavage and bedding–cleavage relat...Figure 7.2 Antiform showing fanning cleavage and bedding–cleavage relationsh...Figure 7.3 Antiform showing transecting cleavage and bedding–cleavage relati...Figure 7.4 Types of parasitic folds. Arrows show the sense of rotation.Figure 7.5 Attitudes of beds and parasitic folds. (a) Map view. (b) Same map...Figure 7.6 Axial planar foliations (cleavage). (a) Map showing attitudes of ...Figure 7.7 Superposition of folding (map view). (a) First generation of fold...Figure P7.1 Geologic map and cross section line for use with Problem 7.2Figure P7.2 Outcrop map, geologic map and cross section line for use with Pr...Figure P7.3 A hand sample of a rock showing multiple foliations for use in P...Figure P7.4 Geologic map of an area in the Hudson Highlands of New York with...Figure P7.5 Geologic map of the Hundley Dome in the Altavista area of Virgin...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Shear strain measured as angular shear (Ψ). (a) Before deformatio...Figure 8.2 The strain ellipse. Beginning with a circle with a radius of 1 un...Figure 8.3 Seven circles and their corresponding strain ellipses. The seven ...Figure 8.4 Graph on which 1 + e₂ is plotted against 1 + e₁ for a given strai...Figure 8.5 Graph on which 1 + e₂ is plotted against 1 + e₁, showing three fi...Figure 8.6 Total strain ellipse with lines of no total longitudinal strain....Figure 8.7 Undeformed trilobite showing bilateral symmetry across the spine....Figure 8.8 Wellman technique for determining strain ellipse. In this example...Figure 8.9 Using the Wellman technique on deformed fossils. (a) Five non‐per...Figure 8.10 Using the Mohr circle technique on one deformed fossil plus exte...Figure 8.11 Using the Mohr circle technique on two deformed fossils. (a) Two...Figure 8.12 Using the Mohr circle technique on two boudinaged fossils. (a) T...Figure P8.1 Schematic brachiopod. (a) Undeformed. (b) Deformed. For use in P...Figure P8.2 Deformed crinoid ossicles in sandstone for use in Problem 8.2. S...Figure P8.3 An exposed fold in sandstone for use in Problem 8.3.Figure P8.4 Several deformed brachiopods for use in Problems 8.4, 8.5, and 8...Figure P8.5 Boudinaged tourmaline crystals on quartzite from the Chickies Fo...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Minimally deformed strain ellipse showing difficulty in choosing ...Figure 9.2 Manual Fry method analysis. (a) Tracing paper showing dots traced...Figure 9.3 Manual Rf/φ method analysis. (a) Measuring the semi‐major and sem...Figure P9.1 A field of deformed spherical objects for use in the Fry method ...Figure P9.2 A field of deformed non‐spherical objects for use in the Rf/φ me...

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Two‐dimensional relationship between a plane and its state of st...Figure 10.2 Mohr diagram for graphing the state of stress on a plane. Within...Figure 10.3 Conventional signs assigned to shearing stresses for the purpose...Figure 10.4 Main features of the Mohr circle for stress. The Mohr circle is ...Figure 10.5 Mohr circle solution to a sample problem requiring the determina...Figure 10.6 Schematic diagram of a rock‐fracture experiment in which a cylin...Figure 10.7 Mohr circles of successive stages of the rock‐fracture experimen...Figure 10.8 Main characteristics of a failure envelope. The envelope is defi...Figure 10.9 Generalized relationships between the principal stresses and ang...Figure 10.10 Effect of pore pressure on brittle failure. The dashed Mohr cir...Figure 10.11 Block diagram showing an oblique‐slip fault that was experiment...Figure 10.12 Mohr circles and failure envelope for Weber Sandstone at Rangel...Figure P10.1 Diagrams for use in Problems 10.1 and 10.2.Figure P10.2 Schematic diagram for use in Problem 10.6.Figure P10.3 Diagram of a fractured block of limestone for use in Problem 10...Figure P10.4 Diagrams for use in Problems 10.8 and 10.9.

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Schematic block diagram showing systematic joint sets (planar‐pa...Figure 11.2 Generalized map of two perpendicular joint sets A and B with thr...Figure 11.3 Diagram from Figure 11.2 showing the parameters used in Eq. (11....Figure 11.4 Rose diagram analysis with a completed Rose diagram of joints fo...Figure 11.5 Example of a length vs strike diagram.Figure 11.6 (a) Interpretation of a Rose diagram, showing labeling of maxima...Figure 11.7 Analyzing joint density of an area by (1) gridding the map for j...Figure P11.1 Rose diagram blank template for plotting.Figure P11.2 Analyze the joints in the fracture pattern shown in the map in ...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Block diagram showing a dip‐slip fault. This is a normal fault b...Figure 12.2 Block diagram showing a left‐lateral or sinistral strike‐slip fa...Figure 12.3 Block diagram showing a listric fault. The bold arrow shows the ...Figure 12.4 Block diagram showing a rotational fault. This is a scissor faul...Figure 12.5 (a) Geologic map showing the difference between offset and strik...Figure 12.6 The solution of a slip problem. (a) Geologic map. (b) Block diag...Figure 12.7 The solution to a rotational‐slip problem. (a) Geologic map. (b)...Figure 12.8 Block diagram showing the omission of strata (as exposed on the ...Figure 12.9 Block diagram showing domino‐style normal block faulting, result...Figure 12.10 Block diagram showing the repetition of strata (as exposed on t...Figure 12.11 (a) Map and (b) cross section showing typical elements of a thr...Figure P12.1 Geologic map for use in Problems 12.1 and 12.2.Figure P12.2 Geologic map for use in Problem 12.3.Figure P12.3 Geologic map for use in Problem 12.4.

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 The diagonal force of a hand pushing on a tabletop at an angle r...Figure 13.2 (a) The three principal stresses and the three planes of zero sh...Figure 13.3 Relationship between the three principal stresses and conjugate ...Figure 13.4 Block diagrams and equal‐area plots of three classes of faults p...Figure 13.5 (a) Cross section diagram of a normal fault dipping 30° to the e...Figure 13.6 Equal‐area plot of five reverse faults, showing the pitch of sli...Figure 13.7 (a) Equal‐area plot of 10 faults, including the fault plane, pit...Figure P13.1 Diagrams for use with Problem 13.1.Figure P13.2 Map view of a mine adit, showing the attitude and sense of moti...Figure P13.3 Map and cross section for use with Problem 13.4.Figure P13.4 Regional tectonic map of the southwestern United States for use...Figure P13.5 Block diagrams for use with Problem 13.6.Figure P13.6 Regional map of eastern Asia for use with Problem 13.7.Figure P13.7 Diagrams for use with Problem 13.7.

14 Chapter 14Figure P14.1 Outcrop map of the Athena area including lithologic and structu...

15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Straight grain boundaries and the crudely rectangular shape of q...Figure 15.2 Photomicrograph of a sandstone from Pennsylvania that has underg...Figure 15.3 Sketch showing development of “mica beards” in the pressure shad...Figure 15.4 Photomicrograph showing quartz ribbons (QR) in ultramylonite fro...Figure 15.5 Photomicrograph showing subgrains (SG) and new grains (NG) in a ...Figure 15.6 High strain shear zone developed in a lower strain zone in grani...Figure 15.7 Fault‐rock classification (Modified from Sibson 1977). The matri...Figure 15.8 Photomicrograph of cataclasite from Ralston Buttes, Colorado. An...Figure 15.9 Mylonitic rocks, showing variation in the relative proportion of...Figure 15.10 Relationship between mylonitic fabric and sense of shear. (a) S...Figure 15.11 Photomicrograph of S‐C fabric in granite mylonite,. C = C surfa...Figure 15.12 Sketches of two types of asymmetric porphyroclasts. (a) Sigma (...Figure 15.13 Oblique foliation in dynamically recrystallized quartz aggregat...Figure 15.14 (a) Undeformed grain with cleavage planes. (b) Antithetically f...Figure 15.15 Calculating strain and offset in a shear zone in gneiss. (a) Ph...Figure P15.1 Photomicrograph for use in Problem 15.1. F = Feldspar; Q = quar...Figure P15.2 Photomicrograph of rock for use in Problem 15.2. K = K‐feldspar...Figure P15.3 Photomicrograph of quartz fabric from Atlanta, GA for use in Pr...Figure P15.4 Field photograph for use in Problem 15.4. The protolith of this...Figure P15.5 Field photograph for use in Problem 15.5. The protolith of this...Figure P15.6 Photomicrograph for use in Problem 15.6. F = Feldspar; Q = quar...Figure P15.7 Photograph of a small shear zone in gneiss for use in Problems ...Figure P15.8 Photograph of an S‐C mylonite in granite for use in Problem 15....

16 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 Schematic cross section showing typical elements of thrust terra...Figure 16.2 Progressive development of a fault‐bend fold as the thrust sheet...Figure 16.3 Progressive development of a fault‐propagation fold at the tip o...Figure 16.4 An unbalanced cross section. (a) Deformed‐state cross section. (...Figure 16.5 (a) Deformed‐state cross section. (b) Stratigraphic “template.” ...Figure P16.1 Cross section and table for use in Problem 16.1.Figure P16.2 Cards to produce a flip book of the development of fault propag...Figure P16.3 Diagram of fault‐bend folds for use in Problem 16.3. J = Jurass...Figure P16.4 Diagram of fault‐bend folds for use in Problem 16.4. J = Jurass...Figure P16.5 Geologic map with wells and topographic profile A–A’ (location ...Figure P16.6 Geologic map with cross section A–A′ and well located and topog...

17 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 Structure of the earth's crust and upper mantle and, in terms of...Figure 17.2 Plate boundaries. (a) Divergent‐plate boundary. (b) Ocean–contin...Figure 17.3 (a) Ridge–ridge–ridge triple junction. Arrows show relative move...Figure 17.4 The use of a velocity triangle to determine the type of plate bo...Figure 17.5 Seismic energy released at the hypocenter (center of diagram) re...Figure 17.6 Map view of a right lateral strike‐slip fault showing the quadra...Figure 17.7 (a) East–west cross section of a seismically active normal fault...Figure 17.8 Focal‐mechanism solution, in which each seismic station is plott...Figure 17.9 Map of a portion of the earth, showing an earthquake epicenter o...Figure 17.10 Alternative interpretations for three focal‐mechanism solutions...Figure 17.11 Lower‐hemisphere plot showing the solution to Example 3. (a) Pl...Figure 17.12 Schematic diagram of the earth showing the orientation of the e...Figure 17.13 Cross section through a mid‐ocean ridge. Note the symmetry of t...Figure 17.14 Sample sites and calculated paleomagnetic poles for a fixed pla...Figure 17.15 Sample sites and calculated paleomagnetic poles for a plate tha...Figure P17.1 Triple junction diagrams for use in Problems 17.1, 17.2, and 17...Figure P17.2 Fault plane solutions and lower hemisphere equal‐area net for u...Figure P17.3 Tectonic map and data for use in Problem 17.5.Figure P17.4 Compilation map and data to reconstruct the plate tectonic hist...