Читать книгу Houses and Gardens of Kyoto - Thomas Daniell - Страница 9

aristocratic villas

One of the more curious aspects of Imperial rule during Kyoto’s thousand-year tenure as capital of Japan is the insei (cloistered rule) system, in which an Emperor would officially retire but continue to exert power from behind the scenes. Abdicating at an early age and forcing one of his own children—often no more than an infant—to ascend the Chrysanthemum Throne, the Emperor would take the title of daijo tenno (Retired Emperor) or, in cases where he entered the Buddhist priesthood, the title of daijo hoo (Cloistered Emperor). It was not unknown for there to be several Retired Emperors living at the same time, but only one would be acknowledged to have authority. For most of Kyoto’s history, this was more or less irrelevant anyway: real power lay elsewhere. At the end of the Heian Period (794–1185) it had become generally accepted that the Retired Emperor was ruling with the titular Emperor as a figurehead, yet at that same historical moment effective control of the nation shifted to the military government of the Kamakura Shogunate. From the Kamakura Period (1185–1333) onward, the balance of power continued to oscillate between the military dictators and the Imperial family, but for the most part lay beyond a somewhat farcical series of façades: a nominal Emperor who was controlled by a Retired Emperor who answered to the Shogun who delegated to his military generals.

It was this very lack of ultimate responsibility that allowed the Retired Emperors the freedom to cultivate their hobbies, to study and contribute to the development of arts such as the tea ceremony, flower arrangement, and calligraphy. Imperial wealth was used to sponsor and indulge poets, painters, and sculptors. Those Retired Emperors and other members of the nobility who commissioned retirement villas and summer palaces often collaborated on the designs with the carpenters and gardeners they employed. Produced for the wealthiest clients on the best sites by the most skilful artisans using the highest-grade materials, the aristocratic villas of Kyoto are quintessential examples of the qualities of traditional Japanese architecture.

Katsura Imperial Villa

LOCATION NISHIGYO-KU

ESTABLISHED IN 1615

BUILT FOR HACHIJONOMIYA TOSHIHITO

Invariably described as the apotheosis of sukiya -style architecture, the buildings and gardens that make up Katsura Imperial Villa in fact display an eclectic hybrid of design approaches. The architecture juxtaposes and intermingles shoin and sukiya elements and spaces, with even a trace of the shinden style in its relationship to the garden and miniature lake. It is, of course, this very heterogeneity that defines Katsura as an exemplar of purest sukiya.

One of two surviving Imperial villas located in Kyoto (the other is Shugakuin Imperial Villa), Katsura Imperial Villa was originally built in 1615 as a country residence for Prince Toshihito (1579–1629), a member of the Hachijonomiya family, and later expanded by his son, Prince Toshitada (1619–62). The three main buildings—Koshoin, Chushoin, and Shingoten—were built in stages, cumulatively forming a linked, diagonally stepping composition known as ganko (flying geese). As well as reducing the apparent building volume, the subtle dynamism of this arrangement enhances natural light and ventilation inside, and creates intimate relationships with the lake outside. Four unique tea houses are distributed throughout the villa grounds, and the whole comprises a picturesque kaiyushiki teien (stroll garden) around the lake. The many historical accounts of visits by members of the nobility to Katsura Imperial Villa invariably mention touring the garden by boat as well as by foot, stopping to admire the view at prescribed locations. Indeed, despite the naturalistic appearance, every part of the garden has been deliberately and precisely composed using a design technique known as miegakure, in which various elements alternately disappear and reappear in different aspects as one moves about. Undoubtedly the finest example of the integration of architecture and environment to be found in Japan, Katsura Imperial Villa’s complexities and contradictions have allowed observers to interpret it in multiple ways—during the early twentieth century several notable European architects believed they had discovered here a precursor to the modernist simplicity and functionalism they were then pursuing.

The Shoin complex is a series of linked buildings comprising the Koshoin (Old Shoin), Chushoin (Middle Shoin), and Shingoten (New Palace). The small Gakkinoma (Music Room) is interposed between the latter two.

The linked Shoin buildings are related to each other in a stepping composition known as ganko (flying geese), enhancing natural light and ventilation inside each one.

Made of bamboo, the tsukimidai (moon-viewing platform) projects from the large veranda of the Koshoin and gives a superb overview of the garden.

The east entrance to the veranda of the Koshoin, from which the tsukimidai extends toward the pond.

The interior of Shokintei (Pine Lute Pavilion), the first tea house encountered when circumnavigating the Katsura grounds. The tea preparation area is visible on the veranda beyond.

Shokintei is first seen across a stone slab bridge linking two islands in the pond, designed to evoke Amanohashidate, a famous scenic spot on the Japan Sea coast.

The middle room of the oldest tea house at Katsura, Gepparo (Moon Wave Lookout), so named because its elevated location provides a view of the moon’s reflection in the pond.

The tea preparation area on the veranda of Shokintei, containing a water basin, a hearth for heating water, and a shelf for tea utensils, all screened by a low wall of woven reeds.

A glimpse of the famous indigo-and-white checkered pattern in the tokonoma of Shokintei..

Shokatei (Prize Flower Pavilion) tea house has a raised floor comprising four tatami mats set in a U shape. There is a hearth for boiling water in the foreground and chigaidana (staggered shelves) for tea utensils to the rear.

Stone paths lead up to Shokatei, which is located at the highest point in the garden.

The entrance courtyard of the Koshoin contains an interesting combination of regular and irregular stepping stones. To the left is a stone lantern designed in the style of tea master Furuta Oribe (1543–1615).

The rectangular strip of ishidatami stepping stones set adjacent to Sotoshikoshikake (Waiting Bench), where visitors would pause while the host was preparing tea.

A tsuchibei fence on the perimeter of the villas grounds, surfaced in richly colored natural clay and capped with thatch held in place by pieces of bamboo.

The entrance room and middle room of Shoiken (Laughing Mind Hut), divided by fusuma panels. The rear garden is visible through a large window, the lower sill of which is covered by a gilded velvet drape.

A fence made of spicebush branches supported by horizontal bamboo poles extends from the Chumon (Central Gate), formerly known as the Onarikaya (Imperial Gate).

Shugakuin Imperial Villa

LOCATION SAKYO-KU

ESTABLISHED IN 1659

BUILT FOR RETIRED EMPEROR GO-MIZUNOO

Shugakuin Imperial Villa stands within the magnificent natural landscape of the foothills of the Higashiyama mountains, and was built as a retreat for Retired Emperor Go-Mizunoo (1596–1680). The site had been previously occupied by a Buddhist convent called Ensho-ji, in which Go-Mizunoo’s eldest daughter, Bunchi, lived as a nun. Go-Mizunoo was so impressed by the surroundings that he had Ensho-ji and its inhabitants relocated to Nara Province in order to build the villa. The original buildings and gardens were probably designed by Go-Mizunoo himself— the apocryphal story is that he would give instructions to the artisans by disguising himself as a maidservant and traveling to the construction site in a palanquin.

Shugakuin Imperial Villa comprises three independent gardens set at different elevations on the slopes, linked by long paths lined with pine trees to screen them from the surrounding rice fields and farmers. These three areas are known as the Shimo no Ochaya (lower tea house), Naka no Ochaya (middle tea house), and Kami no Ochaya (upper tea house). Each contains one or two small sukiya -style pavilions. The upper garden is dominated by an artificial lake called Yokuryu-chi (Pond of the Bathing Dragon), overlooked by the Rin’untei (Pavilion Next to the Clouds). The two larger islands in the lake are linked by three bridges made of wood, earth, and stone respectively. The Kyusuitei (Distant Pavilion) located on one of the islands is the only original structure. The villa in the middle garden was originally built for Go-Mizunoo’s eighth daughter, Genyo. After his death she became a nun and converted it into a temple called Rinkyu-ji. In 1885 this became part of Shugakuin Imperial Villa proper.

Forming an extensive, panoramic kaiyushiki teien (stroll garden), Shugakuin Imperial Villa has an equally spectacular backdrop. The design makes full use of shakkei (borrowed scenery), a Japanese landscape gardening technique that involves visually incorporating distant elements from the surrounding landscape while screening the immediate neighborhood from view. Mountains, forests, rice fields, and waterfalls are thus drawn into an extraordinarily beautiful and somewhat surreal microcosm.

Miyukimon (a gate for the exclusive use of the Emperor), the entrance to the Shimo no Ochaya (lower tea house) area.

The path leading past Jugetsukan, the elegant villa in the Shimo no Ochaya area.

The villa is surrounded by a small garden containing a pond and stream fed by rainwater from Mount Hiei.

Built in the nineteenth century, this is a replica of the original Jugetsukan. The various paintings inside are attributed to the artists Kishi Ganku (1756–1839) and Okamoto Toyohiko (1773–1845).

Built around 1668, Rakushiken was the original residence of Princess Genyo, the eighth daughter of Retired Emperor Go-Mizunoo.

Flexible interior spaces at Rakushiken are enabled by sliding fusuma panels.

The veranda around Kyakuden in the Naka no Ochaya area. Relocated from the Nyoin Palace in 1682, Kyakuden was used as a new residence by Princess Genyo.

The south face of Kyakuden. On the right a small flight of stone steps leads up the hill.

The image on the door inside Kyakuden depicts carp caught in a net. Visible beyond is the kasumidana, a famous set of decorative shelves made of zelkova wood.

The lawn on the west side of Rakushiken contains a kasamatsu (Japanese umbrella pine) trained on bamboo poles into a broad canopy shape.

The images on these sugi (Japanese cedar) doors inside the Kyakuden depict hoko (floats) used in the annual Gion Festival.

The interior of Kyusuitei (Pavilion in the Far Distance), the only building surviving from the original Shugakuin Imperial Villa.

A stone lantern in the Kami no Ochaya (upper tea house) garden.

An exterior view of Kyusuitei, which is located at the highest point of the main island in Yokuryu-chi (Pond of the Bathing Dragon).

Kaedebashi (Maple Tree Bridge) leading to the main island in Yokuryu-chi.

The view of the Kitayama hills beyond Kami no Ochaya from Rinuntei (Pavilion Next to the Clouds) is a fine example of shakkei (borrowed scenery).

The single room inside Kyusuitei is eighteen tatami mats in area. The six mats in the northwest corner, which are slightly raised and edged with a black-lacquered frame, are intended as a spot for sitting and observing the garden.

A view from inside the palace compound, looking toward the Jomeimon gate, with the Kenreimon gate visible beyond.

Kenreimon (named for Empress Dowager Kenrei), the south gate to the palace grounds, through which even today only the Emperor may pass.

Kenshunmon, the east gate, formerly used by the Empresses and Empress Dowagers.

Kyoto Imperial Palace

LOCATION KAMIGYO-KU

ESTABLISHED IN 1331

BUILT FOR EMPEROR KOGON

Kyoto was the nominal capital of Japan for over a thousand years, but during much of that time effective power lay elsewhere. While the Imperial family lived in secluded irrelevance in their Kyoto palace, a series of samurai warlords fought for dominance over the nation. The Edo Period (1603–1868) saw Japan reunified in the wake of a century of devastating civil wars, with a military regime (the Tokugawa Shogunate) taking control and imposing peace, stability, and unity from their base in Edo, a coastal city located far to the east of Kyoto. The Emperor was finally restored to power in 1868, and the nation’s capital officially relocated from Kyoto to Edo—the latter city was then renamed Tokyo. In 1869 the Imperial family moved to their new home in Tokyo, and many of the residences within the grounds of the old Imperial Palace (now known as the Kyoto Gosho) were demolished, but in 1877 Emperor Meiji (1852–1912) decreed that the remainder be preserved.

The original Imperial Palace, built for the founding of Heian-kyo in 794, was located southwest of the current location. The current palace location was originally one of several satodairi (temporary palaces) located throughout the city, and was first designated as the official palace in 1331 by Emperor Kogon (1313–64). The buildings themselves have been destroyed and rebuilt repeatedly, eight times during the Edo period alone, of which six were due to fire. Most of the current buildings date from 1855.

Enclosed by a thick clay wall, the palace grounds contain an array of independent structures that display the full range of Kyoto’s traditional architectural styles. Seiryoden, the Imperial residence, and Shishinden, the ceremonial hall, are both built in the shinden style, with the shoin style represented by Otsunegoten, an annex to the main residence. A mixture of shinden and shoin styles is manifest in the Kogosho, a building used for official ceremonies. Constructed in 2005, the Geihinkan, or Kyoto State Guest House, is an outstanding example of modernized sukiya architecture.

The 1855 reconstruction of the Shishinden, as seen from between the vermillion columns of the Jomeimon gate. This is the main hall of the Kyoto Imperial Palace, still used for enthronement ceremonies and other major events.

The central flight of steps leading up to the Shishinden is symbolically flanked by a mandarin tree and a cherry tree.

The view directly up the flight of steps leading to the Shishinden reveals the rich layers of brackets and purlins supporting the eaves.

The veranda of the shinden -style Seiryoden (Refreshing Hall), a building used as the private quarters of the Emperor until the mid-Heian Period (794– 1185).

The north side of the Kogosho (Small Palace) faces onto an open courtyard once used for kemari, a type of football played by palace courtiers.

The east side of Giyoden antechamber, originally built to store the Emperor’s valuables.

A room inside the shoin -style Otsunegoten (Everyday Palace), the largest structure in the palace grounds. Built in the late Muromachi Period (1336–1573), it was used as the Emperor’s residence until the capital shifted to Tokyo.

The roof gable of the Kogosho. Formerly used by the Emperor to receive important guests, the building was destroyed by fire in 1954 and rebuilt in 1958.

The corridor along the Higyosha (one of the five ladies’ quarters), also known as Fujitsubo (Wisteria Court) because of the wisteria growing in its patio garden.

Okurumayose (carriage porch), where guests of the Imperial court would first arrive. Many were permitted to bring their ox carriages right into this space.

Oike-niwa (Pond Garden) is a landscaped stroll garden centered on a large pond. The pond contains a sandbar, stepping stones, bridges, small islands, and a boat dock.

Daikaku-ji

LOCATION UKYO-KU

ESTABLISHED IN 876

BUILT FOR EMPEROR SAGA

Located in the Saga district on the northern outskirts of Kyoto, Daikaku-ji is a Buddhist temple that was once a detached palace known as Sagaso, the property of Emperor Saga (786–842). In 876 it was converted into a Buddhist temple by his daughter Empress Seishi (810–79). Her son, Prince Tsunesada (825–84), became the first abbot—Daikaku-ji is a monzeki temple, in which the abbots are always of imperial or aristocratic lineage. The temple adopted the doctrines of Shingon Buddhism, a sect founded by the monk Kukai (774–835). Also known as Kobo Daishi, Kukai had studied esoteric Buddhism in China, but upon returning to Japan earlier than expected found himself unwelcome in Kyoto. In 809 he was ordered to remain sequestered in a temple on Mount Takao, northwest of Kyoto. That same year Emperor Saga ascended to the throne and became a friend and supporter of Kukai, eventually returning him to public prominence.

Emperor Saga and his guests often went boating on Osawano-ike, the adjacent artificial lake. Its form was inspired by Lake Dongting in China’s Hunan province, said to be the origin of dragon boating, and indeed dragon boating still takes place here today during the October moon-viewing parties. Thanks to Emperor Saga’s cultural and aesthetic inclinations, Daikaku-ji has long been renowned as a site of cultural creativity as much as religious faith. He is said to have been the inventor of ikebana flower arrangement, and there is a prominent international ikebana school dedicated to his style, called Saga Goryu. Daikaku-ji was destroyed by fire in 1338 and rebuilt at a reduced size, then significantly altered in 1626 when Emperor Go-Mizunoo (1596–1680) relocated his own imperial hall of state to become the new main hall for the temple. Richly decorated, the temple still manifests the influence of shinden- style architecture and garden design.

Named Murasameno-roka (Corridor of Passing Showers), this zigzag-shaped exterior corridor is intended to evoke the shape of a thunderbolt. All of the exterior veranda floors are constructed using a technique known as uguisubari, which causes them to sound like chirping birds when walked on.

Looking across the veranda of the Miedo hall, built in 1925. In the background is the Shinden, a building donated to the temple by Emperor Go-Mizunoo in 1626.

Looking across the central courtyard, with the Miedo on the left, the Godaido hall on the right, and the Goreiden hall in the middle.

Located in the Shinden, this Momoyama Period painting, called “Kohakubai-zu” (Red and White Plum Blossoms), is by Kano Sanraku (1559–1635).

Also located in the Shinden, this is a detail of “Nosagizu” (Hares) by Shiko Watanabe (1683–1755). The full work depicts nineteen hares across twelve panels.

The interior of the Shoshinden looking through to the Jodan-no-ma, the room from which Retired Emperor Go-Uda exercised clandestine political power.

The Botan-no-ma (Peony Room) of the Shinden, in which eighteen fusuma panels are covered with reproductions of paintings of peonies by Kano Sanraku (1559–1635).