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BIOGRAPHERS OF MUḤAMMAD. Although the Qurʾān may be said to be the key-stone to the biography of Muḥammad, yet it contains but comparatively few references to the personal history of the Prophet. The Traditions, or Aḥādīs̤, form the chief material for all biographical histories. [TRADITION.] The first who attempted to compile an account of Muḥammad in the form of a history, was az-Zuhrī, who died A.H. 124, and whose work, no longer extant, is mentioned by Ibn K͟hallikān. The earliest biographical writers whose works are extant are—Ibn Isḥāq, A.H. 151; Al-Wāqidī, A.H. 207; Ibn Hishām, A.H. 218; Al-Buk͟hārī (history), A.H. 256; At̤-T̤abarī, A.H. 310. Amongst more recent biographies, the most noted are those by Ibnu ʾl-Aṣīr, A.H. 630, and Ismāʿīl Abū ʾl-Fidāʾ, A.H. 732. Abū ʾl-Fidāʾ’s work was translated into Latin by John Gagnier, Professor of Arabic at Oxford, A.D. 1723, and into English by the Rev. W. Murray, Episcopal clergyman at Duffus in Scotland, and published (without date) at Elgin. The first life of Muḥammad published in English is that by Dean Prideaux, which first appeared in 1723, and afterwards passed through several editions. Dr. Sprenger commenced a life of Muḥammad in English, and printed the first part at Allahabad, India, A.D. 1851; but it was never completed. The learned author afterwards published the whole of his work in German, at Berlin, 1869. The only complete life of Muḥammad in English which has any pretension to original research, is the well-known Life of Mahomet, by Sir William Muir, LL.D. (First Edition, four vols., London. 1858–61; Second Edition, one vol., London. 1877).

BIOGRAPHY. A Dictionary of Biography is called اسماء الرجال‎ asmāʾu ʾr-rijāl (lit. “The Names of Men”). The most celebrated of these is, amongst Muslims, that by Ibn K͟hallikān, which has always been considered a work of the highest importance for the civil and literary history of the Muḥammadan people. Ibn K͟hallikān died A.H. 681 (A.D. 1282), but his dictionary received numerous additions from subsequent writers. It has been translated into English by MacGuckin De Slane (Paris, 1843).

BIRDS. It is commonly believed by the Muḥammadans that all kinds of birds, and many, if not all, beasts, have a language by which they communicate their thoughts to each other, and in the Qurʾān (Sūrah xxvii. 16) it is stated that King Solomon was taught the language of birds.

BIʾR ZAMZAM (بئر زمزم‎). The well of Zamzam. [ZAM-ZAM.]

BIʾR MAʿŪNAH (بئر معونة‎). The well of Maʿūnah. A celebrated spot four marches from Makkah, where a party of Muḥammad’s followers were slain by the Banū ʿĀmir and Banū Sulaim. He professed to have received a special message from heaven regarding these martyrs, which runs thus:—“Acquaint our people that we have met our Lord. He is well pleased with us, and we are well pleased with Him.” It is a remarkable verse, as having for some reason or other been cancelled, and removed from the Qurʾān. (Muir’s Life of Mahomet, vol. iii. p. 207.)

BIRTH, Evidence of. According to the Imām Abū Ḥanīfah, if a married woman should claim to be the mother of a child, her claim is not to be valid unless the birth of the child is attested by the testimony of one woman. But in the case of a father, inasmuch as the claim of parentage is a matter which relates purely to himself, his testimony alone is to be accepted.

The testimony of the midwife alone is sufficient with respect to birth, but with regard to parentage, it is established by the fact of the mother of the child being the wife of the husband.

If the woman be in her ʿiddah [ʿIDDAH] from a complete divorce, the testimony of the midwife is not sufficient with respect to birth, but the evidence of two men, or of one man and two women, is requisite. (Hamilton’s Hidāyah, vol. iii. p. 134.)

It is also ruled that it is not lawful for a person to give evidence to anything which he has not seen, except in the cases of birth, death, and marriage. (Vol. ii. 676.)

BISHĀRAH (بشارة‎). [BUSHRA.]

BĪ-SHARʿ (بى شرع‎). Lit. “Without the law.” A term applied to those mystics who totally disregard the teaching of the Qurʾān. Antinomians. [SUFI.]

BISMILLĀH (بسم الله‎). Lit. “In the name of God.” An ejaculation frequently used at the commencement of any undertaking. There are two forms of the Bismillah:—

1. Bi-ʾsmi ʾllāhi ʾr-raḥmāni ʾr-raḥīm, i.e. “In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.” This is used at the commencement of meals, putting on new clothes, beginning any new work, and at the commencement of books. It occurs at the head of every chapter or sūrah in the Qurʾān, with the exception of the IXth (i.e. the Sūratu ʾl-Barāʾah).

2. Bi-ʾsmi ʾllāhi ʾllāhi ʾl-akbar, i.e. “In the name of God, God the Most Great.” Used at the time of slaughtering of animals, at the commencement of a battle, &c., the attribute of mercy being omitted on such occasions.

The formula Bi-ʾsmi ʾllāhi ʾr-raḥmāni ʾr-raḥīm is of Jewish origin. It was in the first instance taught to the Quraish by Umaiyah of T̤āʾif, the poet, who was a contemporary but somewhat older than Muḥammad, and who, during his mercantile journeys into Arabia Petræa and Syria, had made himself acquainted with the sacred books and doctrines of Jews and Christians. (Kitābu ʾl-Aghānī, 16, Delhi; quoted by Rodwell.)

BIẒĀʿAH (بضاعة‎). A share in a mercantile adventure. Property entrusted to another to be employed in trade.

BLACK STONE. [AL-HAJARU ʾL-ASWAD.]

BLASPHEMY. Arabic كفر‎ kufr. Lit. “to hide” (the truth). It includes a denial of any of the essential principles of Islām.

A Muslim convicted of blasphemy is sentenced to death in Muḥammadan countries. [APOSTASY.]

BLEEDING. Arabic حجامة‎ ḥijāmah. The two great cures recommended by Muḥammad were blood-letting and drinking honey; and he taught that it was unlucky to be bled on a Friday, Saturday, or Sunday, the most lucky day being Tuesday, and the most lucky date the seventeenth of the month. (Mishkāt, xxi. c. 1.)

BLIND, The. Arabic أعمى‎ Aʿmā, pl. ʿUmyān. It is not incumbent upon a blind man to engage in Jihād, or a religious war. And, according to the Imām Abū Ḥanīfah, the evidence of a blind person is not admissible, but the Imām Zufar maintains that such evidence is lawful when it affects a matter in which hearsay prevails. Sales and purchases made by a blind person are lawful. (Hamilton’s Hidāyah, vol. ii. pp. 141, 402, 682.)

BLOOD. The sale of blood is unlawful. (Hamilton’s Hidāyah, vol. ii. p. 428.)

BLOOD, The Avenger of. [QISAS.]

BLOOD, Issue of. [ISTIHAZAH.]

BOASTING. Arabic مفاخرة‎ mufāk͟harah. Muḥammad is related to have said, “I swear by God, a tribe must desist from boasting of their forefathers; for they are nothing more than coals from hell-fire (i.e. they were idolaters); and if you do not leave off boasting, verily you will be more hateful in the sight of God than a black-beetle. Mankind are all the sons of Adam, and Adam was of the earth.” (Mishkāt, xxii. c. 13.)

BOOKS OF MOSES. [TAURAT.]

BOOKS, Stealing. The hand of a thief is not to be cut off for stealing a book, whatever be the subject of which it treats, because the object of the theft can only be the contents of the book, and not the book itself. But yet, it is to be observed, the hand is to be cut off for stealing “an account book,” because in this case it is evident that the object of the theft is not the contents of the book, but the paper and material of which the book is made. (Hamilton’s Hidāyah, vol. ii. 92.)

BOOTS. [SHOES.]

BREACH OF TRUST. Arabic خيانة‎ k͟hiyānah. The punishment of amputation of the hand is not inflicted for a breach of trust. And if a guest steal the property of his host whilst he is staying in his house, the hand is not cut off. Breach of trust in Muslim law being a less offence than ordinary theft, the punishment for breach of trust is left to the discretion of the judge. (Hamilton’s Hidāyah, vol. ii. pp. 93–102.)

BRIBERY (Arabic رشوة‎ rishwah) is not mentioned in the Qurʾān. In the Fatāwā ʿĀlamgīrī it is stated that presents to magistrates are of various kinds; for example, if a present be made in order to establish a friendship, it is lawful; but if it be given to influence the decision of the judge in the donor’s favour, it is unlawful. It is also said, if a present be made to a judge from a sense of fear, it is lawful to give it, but unlawful to accept it. (Hamilton’s Hidāyah, vol. iii. p. 332.)

BUʿĀS̤, Battle of. Arabic حرب بعاث‎ Ḥarb Buʿās̤. A battle fought between the Banū K͟hazraj and Banū Aus, about six years before the flight of Muḥammad from Makkah.

BUHTĀN (بهتان‎). A false accusation; calumny.

The word occurs twice in the Qurʾān:—

Sūrah iv. 112: “Whoso commits a fault or sin, and throws it upon one who is innocent, he hath to bear calumny (buhtān) and manifest sin.”

Sūrah xxiv. 15: “And why did ye not say when ye heard it, ‘It is not for us to speak of this’? Celebrated be Thy praises, this is a mighty calumny (buhtān).” [BACKBITING.]

BUKĀʾ (بكاء‎). Heb. ‏בָּכָה‎ he wept. Weeping and lamentation for the dead. Immoderate weeping and lamentation over the graves of the dead is clearly forbidden by Muḥammad, who is related to have said, “Whatever is from the eyes (i.e. tears), and whatever is from the heart (i.e. sorrow), are from God; but what is from the hands and tongue is from the devil. Keep yourselves, O women, from wailing, which is the noise of the devil.” (Mishkāt, v. c. vii.) The custom of wailing at the tombs of the dead is, however, common in all Muḥammadan countries. (See Arabian Nights, Lane’s Modern Egyptians, Shaw’s Travels in Barbary.) [BURIAL.]

AL-BUK͟HĀRĪ (البخارى‎). A short title given to the well-known collection of Sunnī traditions by Abū ʿAbdu ʾllāh Muḥammad ibn Ismāʿīl ibn Ibrāhīm ibn al-Mug͟hīrah al-Juʿfī al-Buk͟hārī, who was born at Buk͟hārā, A.H. 194 (A.D. 810), and died at the village of K͟hartang near Samarqand, A.H. 256 (A.D. 870). His compilation comprises upwards of 7,000 traditions of the acts and sayings of the Prophet, selected from a mass of 600,000. His book is called the Ṣaḥīḥ of al-Buk͟hārī, and is said to have been the result of sixteen years labour. It is said that he was so anxious to record only trustworthy traditions that he performed a prostration in worship before the Almighty before he recorded each tradition.

BUK͟HTU NAṢṢAR (بخت نصر‎). “Nebuchadnezzar.” It is thought by Jalālu ʾd-dīn that there is a reference to his army taking Jerusalem in the Qurʾān, Sūrah xvii. 8, “And when the threat for the last (crime) came (to be inflicted, we sent an enemy) to harm your faces, and to enter the temple as they entered it the first time.” The author of the Qāmūs says that Buk͟ht is “son,” and Naṣṣar, “an idol,” i.e. “the son of Naṣṣar.”

BŪLAS (بولس‎). “Despair.” The name of one of the chambers of hell, where the proud will drink of the yellow water of the infernal regions. (Mishkāt, xxii. c. 20.)

BURĀQ (براق‎). Lit. “The bright one.” The animal upon which Muḥammad is said to have performed the nocturnal journey called Miʿrāj. He was a white animal, between the size of a mule and an ass, having two wings. (Majmaʿu ʾl-Biḥār, p. 89.) Muḥammad’s conception of this mysterious animal is not unlike the Assyrian gryphon, of which Mr. Layard gives a sketch. [MIʿRAJ.]

THE ASSYRIAN GRYPHON (Layard ii. 459).

BURGLARY is punished as an ordinary theft, namely by the amputation of the hand, but it is one of the niceties of Muḥammadan law, according to the Ḥanafī code, that if a thief break through the wall of the house, and enter therein, and take the property, and deliver it to an accomplice standing at the entrance of the breach, amputation of the hand is not incurred by either of the parties, because the thief who entered the house did not carry out the property. (Hidāyah, vol. ii. 103.)

BURIAL OF THE DEAD (جنازة‎ Jināzah or Janāzah). The term Janāzah is used both for the bier and for the Muḥammadan funeral service. The burial service is founded upon the practice of Muḥammad, and varies but little in different countries, although the ceremonies connected with the funeral procession are diversified. In Egypt and Buk͟hārā, for instance, the male relations and friends of the deceased precede the corpse, whilst the female mourners follow behind. In India and Afg͟hānistān, women do not usually attend funerals, and the friends and relatives of the deceased walk behind the bier. There is a tradition amongst some Muḥammadans that no one should precede the corpse, as the angels go before. Funeral processions in Afg͟hānistān are usually very simple in their arrangements, and are said to be more in accordance with the practice of the Prophet, than those of Egypt and Turkey. It is considered a very meritorious act to carry the bier, and four from among the near relations, every now and then relieved by an equal number, carry it on their shoulders. Unlike our Christian custom of walking slowly to the grave, the Muḥammadans carry their dead quickly to the place of interment; for Muḥammad is related to have said, that it is good to carry the dead quickly to the grave, to cause the righteous person to arrive soon at happiness, and if he be a bad man, it is well to put wickedness away from one’s shoulders. Funerals should always be attended on foot; for it is said that Muḥammad on one occasion rebuked his people for following on horse-back. “Have you no shame?” said he, “since God’s angels go on foot, and you go upon the backs of quadrupeds?” It is a highly meritorious act to attend a funeral, whether it be that of a Muslim, a Jew, or a Christian. There are, however, two traditions which appear to mark a change of feeling on the part of the Prophet of Arabia towards the Jews and Christians. “A bier passed by the Prophet, and he stood up; and it was said to the Prophet, this is the bier of a Jew. ‘It is the holder of a soul,’ he replied, ‘from which we should take warning and fear.’” This rule is said to have been abrogated, for, “on one occasion the Prophet was sitting on the road when a bier passed, and the Prophet disliked that the bier of a Jew should be higher than his head, and he therefore stood up.” (Mishkāt, v. c. v.) Notwithstanding these contradictory traditions, we believe that in all countries Muḥammadans are wont to pay great respect to the funerals of both Jews and Christians.

The Muḥammadan funeral service is not recited in the graveyard, it being too polluted a place for so sacred an office; but either in a mosque, or in some open space near the dwelling of the deceased person or the graveyard. The owner of the corpse, i.e. the nearest relative, is the proper person to recite the service; but it is usually said by the family Imām, or the Qāẓī.

The following is the order of the service:—

Some one present calls out,—

“Here begin the prayers for the dead.”

Then those present arrange themselves in three, five, or seven rows opposite the corpse, with their faces Qiblah-wards (i.e. towards Makkah). The Imām stands in front of the ranks opposite the head (the Shīʿahs stand opposite the loins of a man) of the corpse, if it be that of a male, or the waist, if it be that of a female.

The whole company having taken up the Qiyām, or standing position, the Imām recites the Nīyah.

“I purpose to perform prayers to God for this dead person, consisting of four Takbīrs.”

Then placing his hands to the lobes of his ears, he says the first Takbīr.

“God is great!”

Then folding his hands, the right hand placed upon the left, below the navel, he recites the Subḥān:—

“Holiness to Thee, O God,

And to Thee be praise.

Great is Thy Name.

Great is Thy Greatness.

Great is Thy Praise.

There is no deity but Thee.”

Then follows the second Takbīr:—

“God is great!”

Then the Durūd:—

“O God, have mercy on Muḥammad and upon his descendants, as Thou didst bestow mercy, and peace, and blessing, and compassion, and great kindness upon Abraham and upon his descendants.

“Thou art praised, and Thou art great!

“O God, bless Muḥammad and his descendants, as Thou didst bless and didst have compassion and great kindness upon Abraham and upon his descendants.”

Then follows the third Takbīr:—

“God is great!”

After which the following prayer (Duʿā) is recited:—

“O God, forgive our living and our dead and those of us who are present, and those who are absent, and our children, and our full grown persons, our men and our women. O God, those whom Thou dost keep alive amongst us, keep alive in Islām, and those whom Thou causest to die, let them die in the Faith.”

Then follows the fourth Takbīr:—

“God is great!”

Turning the head round to the right, he says:—

“Peace and mercy be to Thee.”

Turning the head round to the left, he says:—

“Peace and mercy be to Thee.”

The Takbīr is recited by the Imām aloud, but the Subḥān, the Salām, the Durūd, and the Duʿā, are recited by the Imām and the people in a low voice.

The people then seat themselves on the ground, and raise their hands in silent prayer in behalf of the deceased’s soul, and afterwards addressing the relatives they say, “It is the decree of God.” To which the chief mourner replies, “I am pleased with the will of God.” He then gives permission to the people to retire by saying, “There is permission to depart.”

Those who wish to return to their houses do so at this time, and the rest proceed to the grave. The corpse is then placed on its back in the grave, with the head to the north and feet to the south, the face being turned towards Makkah. The persons who place the corpse in the grave repeat the following sentence: “We commit thee to earth in the name of God and in the religion of the Prophet.”

The bands of the shroud having been loosed, the recess, which is called the laḥd, is closed in with unburnt bricks and the grave filled in with earth. [GRAVE.] In some countries it is usual to recite verse 57 of the XXth Sūrah of the Qurʾān as the clods of earth are thrown into the grave; but this practice is objected to by the Wahhābīs, and by many learned divines. The verse is as follows:—

“From it (the earth) have We (God) created you, and unto it will We return you, and out of it will We bring you forth the second time.”

After the burial, the people offer a fātiḥah (i.e. the first chapter of the Qurʾān) in the name of the deceased, and again when they have proceeded about forty paces from the grave they offer another fātiḥah; for at this juncture, it is said, the two angels Munkar and Nakīr examine the deceased as to his faith. [PUNISHMENTS OF THE GRAVE.] After this, food is distributed to beggars and religious mendicants as a propitiatory offering to God, in the name of the deceased person.

If the grave be for the body of a woman, it should be to the height of a man’s chest, if for a man, to the height of the waist. At the bottom of the grave the recess is made on the side to receive the corpse, which is called the lāḥid or laḥd. The dead are seldom interred in coffins, although they are not prohibited.

To build tombs with stones or burnt bricks, or to write a verse of the Qurʾān upon them, is forbidden in the Ḥadīs̤; but large stone and brick tombs are common to all Muḥammadan countries, and very frequently they bear inscriptions.

On the third day after the burial of the dead, it is usual for the relatives to visit the grave, and to recite selections from the Qurʾān. Those who can afford to pay Maulavīs, employ these learned men to recite the whole of the Qurʾān at the graves of their deceased relatives; and the Qurʾān is divided into sections to admit of its being recited by the several Maulavīs at once. During the days of mourning the relatives abstain from wearing any article of dress of a bright colour, and their soiled garments remain unchanged.

A funeral procession in Egypt is graphically described by Mr. Lane in his Modern Egyptians. We give the account as it contrasts strikingly with the simple processions of Sunnī Muḥammadans in India.

“The first persons are about six or more poor men, called ‘Yamanīyah,’ mostly blind, who proceed two and two, or three and three, together. Walking at a moderate pace, or rather slowly, they chant incessantly, in a melancholy tone, the profession of faith (‘There is no deity but God; Muhammad is God’s Apostle; God favour and preserve him!’). They are followed by some male relations and friends of the deceased, and, in many cases, by two or more persons of some sect of darweshes, bearing the flags of their order. This is a general custom at the funeral of a darwesh. Next follow three or four or more schoolboys; one of them carries a mus̤ḥaf (or copy of the Qurʾān), or a volume consisting of one of the thirty sections of the Qurʾān, placed upon a kind of desk formed of palm-sticks, and covered over, generally with an embroidered kerchief. These boys chant, in a higher and livelier voice than the Yamanīyah, usually some words of a poem called the Ḥashrīyah, descriptive of the events of the last day, the judgment, &c. The schoolboys immediately precede the bier, which is borne head-foremost. Three or four friends of the deceased usually carry it for a short distance; then three or four other friends bear it a little further; and then these are in like manner relieved. Casual passengers, also, often take part in this service, which is esteemed highly meritorious. Behind the bier walk the female mourners; sometimes a group of more than a dozen, or twenty; with their hair dishevelled, though generally concealed by the head-veil; crying and shrieking, as before described; and often, the hired mourners accompany them, celebrating the praises of the deceased. Among the women, the relations and domestics of the deceased are distinguished by a strip of linen or cotton stuff or muslin, generally blue, bound round the head, and tied in a single knot behind: the ends hanging down a few inches. Each of these also carries a handkerchief, usually dyed blue, which she sometimes holds over her shoulders, and at other times twirls with both hands over her head, or before her face. The cries of the women, the lively chanting of the youths, and the deep tones uttered by the Yamanīyah, compose a strange discord.

“The funeral procession of a man of wealth, or of a person of the middle classes, is sometimes preceded by three or four or more camels, bearing bread and water to give to the poor at the tomb, and is composed of a more numerous and varied assemblage of persons. The foremost of these are the Yamanīyah, who chant the profession of the faith, as described above. They are generally followed by some male friends of the deceased, and some learned and devout persons who have been invited to attend the funeral. Next follows a group of four or more faqīhs, chanting the ‘Sūratu ʾl-Anʿām’ (the VIth chapter of the Qurʾān); and sometimes, another group, chanting the ‘Sūratu Yā-sīn’ (the XXXVIth chapter); another, chanting the ‘Sūratu ʾl-Kahf’ (the XVIIIth chapter); and another chanting the ‘Sūratu ʾd-Duk͟hān’ (the XLIVth chapter). These are followed by some munshids, singing the ‘Burdah;’ and these by certain persons called ‘Aṣḥābu ʾl-Aḥzāb,’ who are members of religious orders founded by celebrated shaikhs. There are generally four or more of the order of the Ḥizbu ʾs-Sādāt, a similar group of the Ḥizbu ʾsh-Shāzilī, and another of the Ḥizbu ʾsh-Shaʿrāwī; each group chants a particular form of prayer. After them are generally borne two or more half-furled flags, the banners of one or other of the principal orders of darweshes. Then follow the school-boys, the bier, and the female mourners, as in the procession before described, and, perhaps, the led horses of the bearers, if these be men of rank. A buffalo, to be sacrificed at the tomb, where its flesh is to be distributed to the poor, sometimes closes the procession.

“The funeral of a devout shaikh, or of one of the great ʿUlamā, is still more numerously attended, and the bier of such a person is not covered with a shawl. A ‘walī’ is further honoured in his funeral by a remarkable custom. Women follow his bier, but, instead of wailing, as they would after the corpse of an ordinary mortal, they rend the air with the shrill and quavering cries of joy called ‘zaghārīt̤’; and if these cries are discontinued but for a minute, the bearers of the bier protest that they cannot proceed, that a supernatural power rivets them to the spot on which they stand. Very often, it is said, a ‘walī’ impels the bearers of his corpse to a particular spot. The following anecdote, describing an ingenious mode of puzzling a dead saint in a case of this kind, was related to me by one of my friends. Some men were lately bearing the corpse of a ‘walī’ to a tomb prepared for it in the great cemetery on the north of the metropolis, but on arriving at the gate called Bābu ʾn-Naṣr, which leads to the cemetery, they found themselves unable to proceed further, from the cause above-mentioned. ‘It seems,’ said one of the bearers, ‘that the shaikh is determined not to be buried in the cemetery of Bābu ʾn-Naṣr, and what shall we do?’ They were all much perplexed, but being as obstinate as the saint himself, they did not immediately yield to his caprice. Retreating a few paces, and then advancing with a quick step, they thought by such an impetus to force the corpse through the gateway; but their efforts were unsuccessful; and the same experiment they repeated in vain several times. They then placed the bier on the ground to rest and consult; and one of them, beckoning away his comrades to a distance beyond the hearing of the dead saint, said to them, ‘Let us take up the bier again, and turn it round several times till the shaikh becomes giddy; he then will not know in what direction we are going, and we may take him easily through the gate.’ This they did; the saint was puzzled as they expected, and quietly buried in the place which he had so striven to avoid.

“In the funerals of females and boys, the bier is usually only preceded by the Yamanīyah, chanting the profession of the faith, and by some male relations of the deceased; and followed by the female mourners; unless the deceased were of a family of wealth, or of considerable station in the world; in which case, the funeral procession is distinguished by some additional display. I shall give a short description of one of the most genteel and decorous funerals of this kind that I have witnessed: it was that of a young, unmarried lady. Two men, each bearing a large, furled, green flag, headed the procession, preceding the Yamanīyah, who chanted in an unusually low and solemn manner. These faqīrs, who were in number about eight, were followed by a group of fakīhs, chanting a chapter of the Qurʾān. Next after the latter was a man bearing a large branch of ‘Nabq’ (or lote-tree), an emblem of the deceased. On each side of him walked a person bearing a tall staff or cane, to the top of which were attached several hoops ornamented with strips of various coloured paper. These were followed by two Turkish soldiers, side by side, one bearing, on a small round tray, a gilt silver ‘qumqum’ of rose-water, and the other bearing, on a similar tray, a ‘mibk͟harah’ of gilt silver, in which some odoriferous substance (as benzoin, or frankincense) was burning. These vessels diffused the odour of their contents on the way, and were afterwards used to perfume the sepulchral vault. Passengers were occasionally sprinkled with the rose-water. Next followed four men, each of whom bore, upon a small tray, several small lighted tapers of wax, stuck in lumps of paste of ‘ḥinnā.’ The bier was covered with rich shawls, and its shāhid was decorated with handsome ornaments of the head, having, besides the ṣafā, a ‘quṣṣah almās’ (a long ornament of gold and diamonds worn over the forehead), and, upon its flat top, a rich diamond qurṣ. These were the jewels of the deceased, or were, perhaps, as is often the case, borrowed for the occasion. The female mourners, in number about seven or eight, clad in the usual manner of the ladies of Egypt (with the black silk covering, &c.), followed the bier, not on foot, as is the common custom in funerals in this country, but mounted on high-saddled asses; and only the last two or three of them were wailing; these being, probably, hired mourners. In another funeral procession of a female, the daughter of a Turk of high rank, the Yamanīyah were followed by six slaves, walking two by two. The first two slaves bore each a silver qumqum of rose-water, which they sprinkled on the passengers; and one of them honoured me so profusely as to wet my dress very uncomfortably; after which, he poured a small quantity into my hands; and I wetted my face with it, according to custom. Each of the next two bore a silver mibk͟harah, with perfume; and the other two carried a silver ʾāzqi (or hanging censer), with burning charcoal of frankincense. The jewels on the shāhid of the bier were of a costly description. Eleven ladies, mounted on high-saddled asses, together with several naddābahs, followed.”

BURNING THE DEAD. There is no express injunction, in either the Qurʾān or the Traditions, regarding the burning of dead bodies, although the burning of the living is strictly forbidden. For Muḥammad said, “Punish not with God’s punishment (which is fire), for it is not fit for anyone to punish with fire but God.” (Mishkāt, xiv. c. v. part 1.)

The teaching of the Traditions is that a dead body is as fully conscious of pain as a living body, for ʿĀyishah said, that the Prophet said, “The breaking of the bones of a corpse is the same as doing it in life.” (Mishkāt, v. c. vi. part 2.)

It is, therefore, pretty clearly established that cremation of the dead is strictly forbidden by the Muḥammadan religion. There is, however, nothing to confirm the impression that the burning of a corpse in any way prevents its soul entering paradise.

BURNING TO DEATH is strictly forbidden by Muslim law. ʿIkrimah relates that some apostates from Islām were brought to the K͟halīfah ʿAlī, and he burnt them; and when Ibn ʿAbbās heard of it, he said, “Had they been brought to me, I would not have burnt them; for the Prophet said, ‘Punish not with God’s punishment. Verily it is not fit for anyone to punish with fire but God.’” (Mishkāt, xiv. c. v. part 1.)

BURQAʿ (برقع‎). The veil or covering used for the seclusion of women when walking abroad. [VEILING OF WOMEN.]

BURŪJ (بروج‎). Lit. “Towers,” which some interpret as real towers wherein the angels keep watch. A term used for the twelve signs of the zodiac. [SIGNS OF THE ZODIAC.] Al-Burūj is the title of the LXXXVth Sūrah of the Qurʾān.

BURYING OF THE DEAD. It is said by commentators that God taught mankind to bury their dead when “God sent a crow to scratch the earth, to show him (Cain) how he might hide his brother’s body.” (Qurʾān, Sūrah v. 34; Tafsīr-i-Ḥusainī, in loco.) The custom of burying their dead is universal in Islām. The ceremonies connected with funerals will be found in the article on Burial. [BURIAL.]

BURYING-GROUND. Arabic مقبرة‎ maqbarat or maqbarah, “The place of graves.” Persian Qabr-gāh, or Qabristān. They are sometimes spoken of by religious Muslims as Marqad, a “cemetery” or “sleeping-place,” but the name has not obtained a general application to burial-grounds in the East as it has in the West. They are generally situated outside the city, the graves being covered with pebbles, and distinguished by headstones, those on the graves of men being with a turban-like head. The graves are dug from north to south. The grave-yards are usually much neglected. The Wahhābīs hold it to be a meritorious act, in accordance with the injunctions of the Prophet, to neglect the graves of the dead, the erection of brick tombs being forbidden. (Hidāyah, Arabic ed., vol. i. p. 90.) A grave-yard does not become public property until the proprietor formally makes a gift or bequest of it. (Hidāyah, vol ii., p. 357.)

BUSHRĀ (بشرى‎). “Good news;” “the gospel.” A word used in the Traditions for the publication of Islām. (Mishkāt, xxiv. c. i.) “Accept good news, O ye sons of Tamīm,” which ʿAbdu ʾl-Ḥaqq says means “embrace Islām.”

BUYING. [BAIʿ.]

BUZURG (بزرگ‎). Lit. “great.” A Persian word used in the East for a saintly person, an old man, or a person of rank.