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1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Evolution of electricity‐generating technologies to 2050Figure 1.2 Charles Fritts’ first photovoltaic array, produced in New York Ci...Figure 1.3 Ohl’s patented solar cell structure [20]Figure 1.4 Schematic of the first successful silicon solar cellFigure 1.5 (A) Normalised spectral response of a p on n silicon solar cell. ...Figure 1.6 Vanguard TV‐3 satellite on display at the Smithsonian Air and Spa...Figure 1.7 Decrease in short‐circuit current of n on p and p on n silicon so...Figure 1.8 Schematic of the Telstar silicon solar cell [46]Figure 1.9 Current–voltage curve for a Telstar cell at 28 °C at 100 mW/cm²[4...Figure 1.10 Evolution of recorded mono‐ and multicrystalline silicon solar c...Figure 1.11 Textured (100) monocrystalline silicon wafer.Figure 1.12 Bandgap and lattice constant for the important III–V alloys [62]...Figure 1.13 Structure of a 25.7% GaAs solar cell under the AM1.5 Global spec...Figure 1.14 (a) Structure of a tandem cell, showing the tunnel junction....Figure 1.15 Structure of a very high‐efficiency triple‐junction tandem III–V...Figure 1.16 Assembly of solar arrays for use in space

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Crude oil prices in $/barrel from 1946 to 2016.Figure 2.2 Import and export of crude oil in the United States from 1920Figure 2.3 US federal investments in energy R&D 1961–2008Figure 2.4 Schematic manufacturing process for silicon photovoltaic modules...Figure 2.5 Module lifetime over the duration of the FPSA programme [10]Figure 2.6 Solarex’s ‘solar breeder factory’, Frederick, MDFigure 2.7 Pellworm Island 200 kWp‐array European demonstration project

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Photovoltaic panels on an oil production platformFigure 3.2 Ogami Island lighthouse, Nagasaki, 1966.Figure 3.3 Hybrid photovoltaic–diesel microwave repeater station in Papua Ne...Figure 3.4 Typical photovoltaic‐powered ICCP system in the Libyan Oil Field....Figure 3.5 Photovoltaic‐powered parking meterFigure 3.6 Photovoltaic‐powered vehicle speed measurementFigure 3.7 UK roadside emergency telephoneFigure 3.8 Solar‐powered street light on a building siteFigure 3.9 Two‐axis tracked mirror‐enhanced solar revivers at the Carrisa Pl...Figure 3.10 First European central grid‐connected photovoltaic power plant (...Figure 3.11 Lighting in Africa: (a) photovoltaic‐powered;(b) candleFigure 3.12 Photovoltaic‐powered pump supplying water for crop irrigation in...Figure 3.13 Typical solar‐powered products from the early 1980s.

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Global photovoltaics market by technology, 1980–2017Figure 4.2 Schematic of a p/n junction solar cell, showing the flow of photo...Figure 4.3 Essential features of a simple silicon solar cellFigure 4.4 Dark (upper) and light (lower) current/voltage characteristics of...Figure 4.5 Typical solar cell from 1990Figure 4.6 Schematic layout of a Siemens reactor used in the production of s...Figure 4.7 Wacker Silso casting furnaceFigure 4.8 Cross‐section of part of a Wacker Silso ingotFigure 4.9 Cross‐section of a directionally solidified multicrystalline sili...Figure 4.10 Minority carrier lifetime and solar cell efficiency as a functio...Figure 4.11 First HCT wire sawFigure 4.12 Conceptual image of a silicon car being cut by multiple wires...Figure 4.13 Schematic inline remote‐plasma PECVD system for silicon nitride ...Figure 4.14 LBIC scan of a 1980s‐type 100 mm round monocrystalline cellFigure 4.15 Rear silver grid pattern on a pseudo square CZ waferFigure 4.16 Textured surface of an acid‐etched multicrystalline wafer [82]...Figure 4.17 Typical module construction

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Schematic evolution of the photovoltaics market as price fellFigure 5.2 Evolution of the world photovoltaics market by sectorFigure 5.3 Levelised cost of electricity in different off‐grid locations ver...Figure 5.4 Solar lighting in a Zambian homeFigure 5.5 Annual photovoltaic capacity additions for off‐grid nonresidentia...Figure 5.6 Eco House OxfordFigure 5.7 Block diagram of a typical 1000 Roof Programme domestic system [1...Figure 5.8 Cumulative installations in the German market from 1990 to 2002, ...Figure 5.9 Growth of the Japanese distributed grid‐connected market from 199...Figure 5.10 Large domestic grid‐connected system in GermanyFigure 5.11 Large solar system integrated into the facade of Stadtwerke, ULM...Figure 5.12 Flow of modules into main global marketsFigure 5.13 Evolution of cumulative installed photovoltaic capacity by regio...Figure 5.14 Large‐scale solar system on a supermarket with high self‐consump...Figure 5.15 Photovoltaics LCOE and value of electricity for a residential 5 ...Figure 5.16 Price of polysilicon to the photovoltaics industry, 1995 to 2012...Figure 5.17 550 MWp Topaz Solar Farm, United StatesFigure 5.18 Unmanned ground surveillance drone capable of 90 days’ continuou...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Growth of annual installations in the world photovoltaics market ...Figure 6.2 Cumulative installed capacity for on‐ and off‐grid photovoltaics ...Figure 6.3 German cities offering significant FITs (circle area) in 1999 [14...Figure 6.4 Relative proportions of centralised and distributed on‐grid photo...Figure 6.5 Cumulative installation of centralised and distributed on‐grid ph...Figure 6.6 Installation of grid‐connected centralised and decentralised phot...Figure 6.7 Structure of a typical solar PPA, as described by the US Environm...Figure 6.8 El Romero Solar Field, Atacama Desert, ChileFigure 6.9 RPS targets for four leading US states plus Washington, DC [29]...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Growth of a silicon ribbon by the dendritic web process [5]Figure 7.2 Schematic of EFG growth equipment [5]Figure 7.3 Growth of a silicon string ribbon [5]Figure 7.4 Schematic of the RGS process [5]Figure 7.5 Progress in cell efficiency of direct wafer solar cells [32]Figure 7.6 Amorphous silicon structureFigure 7.7 Schematic of a single‐junction p‐i‐n amorphous silicon solar cell...Figure 7.8 Spectral response of a typical stabilised a‐Si/a‐Si/Ge tandem sol...Figure 7.9 Sanyo’s ‘Solar Ark’ with amorphous silicon panelsFigure 7.10 Throughput and yield of the Solarex a‐Si module manufacturing pl...Figure 7.11 Efficiency of a crystalline silicon film with a minority carrier...Figure 7.12 Interconnection scheme for crystalline silicon on glass [92]Figure 7.13 Schematic structure of a CIS or CIGS solar cellFigure 7.14 Annual shipments of thin‐film photovoltaic modules by technology...Figure 7.15 Topaz Solar Farm, Sacramento, CA with 550 MWp of First Solar mod...Figure 7.16 Mechanism for a DSSC [164]Figure 7.17 Schematic of a bulk heterojunction OPV, showing the interpenetra...Figure 7.18 Best solar cell efficiencies with time for different thin‐film t...Figure 7.19 Perovskite crystallographic structure, where A is a short‐chain ...Figure 7.20 External quantum efficiency (EQE) of PVK and silicon solar cells...Figure 7.21 Flatcon 500× receiver at FhG.ISE [182]

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Structure of an LGBC solar cellFigure 8.2 Structure of a PESC [27]Figure 8.3 Modelled efficiency versus wafer thickness for varying degrees of...Figure 8.4 Structure of a PERL silicon solar cell [32]Figure 8.5 Total reflectance from an aluminium‐coated silicon oxide/nitride ...Figure 8.6 Q.ANTUM PERC solar cell [42]Figure 8.7 Conventional PERC cell with (a) full rear‐surface aluminium cover...Figure 8.8 Bifacial 8.27 kWp photovoltaic noise barrier installed in Aubrugg...Figure 8.9 Trina Solar Duomax Twin 60 bifacial glass–glass moduleFigure 8.10 Effect of oxygen and boron doping on the relative loss of minori...Figure 8.11 Structure of a HIT cell with n type silicon wafer and passivatin...Figure 8.12 Structure of an IBC‐SHJ cell [95]Figure 8.13 Quantum efficiency and reflectance spectra for the 26.3% HJ‐IBC ...Figure 8.14 Cross‐section of a rear‐contact solar cell with point diffusions...Figure 8.15 A typical SunPower installation with bifacial modules tracked to...Figure 8.16 Two‐dimensional schematic diagram of an ANU/Trina Solar IBC cell...Figure 8.17 Schematic process for assembling a triple‐junction solar cell on...Figure 8.18 Proof‐of‐concept monolithic perovskite on an SHJ solar cell [127...Figure 8.19 Absorption profile of an optimised perovskite silicon tandem cel...Figure 8.20 Relative severity of different modes of module failure as a perc...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Projected growth of global electricity demand 2000–2060, accordin...