Читать книгу The 1999 CIA World Factbook - United States. Central Intelligence Agency - Страница 27
ОглавлениеTelevisions: NA
Transportation
Railways: 0 km
Highways: total: 105 km paved: 65 km unpaved: 40 km (1992 est.)
Ports and harbors: Blowing Point, Road Bay
Merchant marine: none
Airports: 3 (1998 est.)
Airports—with paved runways:
total: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1998 est.)
Airports—with unpaved runways:
total: 2
under 914 m: 2 (1998 est.)
Military
Military—note: defense is the responsibility of the UK
Transnational Issues
Disputes—international: none
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@Antarctica—————
Geography
Location: continent mostly south of the Antarctic Circle
Geographic coordinates: 90 00 S, 0 00 E
Map references: Antarctic Region
Area:
total: 14 million sq km
land: 14 million sq km (280,000 sq km ice-free, 13.72 million sq km
ice-covered) (est.)
note: second-smallest continent (after Australia)
Area—comparative: slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US
Land boundaries: 0 km note: see entry on International disputes
Coastline: 17,968 km
Maritime claims: none, but see entry on International disputes
Climate: severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate; higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing
Terrain: about 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 meters; mountain ranges up to about 5,000 meters; ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula area, and parts of Ross Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers form ice shelves along about half of the coastline, and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of the continent
Elevation extremes:
lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Vinson Massif 5,140 m
Natural resources: none presently exploited; iron ore, chromium,
copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals, and coal and
hydrocarbons have been found in small, uncommercial quantities
Land use:
arable land: 0%
permanent crops: 0%
permanent pastures: 0%
forests and woodland: 0%
other: 100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%)
Irrigated land: 0 sq km (1993)
Natural hazards: katabatic (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high interior; frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move clockwise along the coast; volcanism on Deception Island and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity rare and weak
Environment—current issues: in 1998, NASA satellite data showed that the antarctic ozone hole was the largest on record, covering 27 million square kilometers; researchers in 1997 found that increased ultraviolet light coming through the hole damages the DNA of icefish, an antarctic fish lacking hemoglobin; ozone depletion earlier was shown to harm one-celled antarctic marine plants
Environment—international agreements:
party to: none of the selected agreements
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Geography—note: the coldest, windiest, highest, and driest continent; during summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at the Equator in an equivalent period; mostly uninhabitable
People
Population: no indigenous inhabitants, but there are seasonally
staffed research stations
note: approximately 29 nations, all signatory to the Antarctic
Treaty, send personnel to perform seasonal (summer) and year-round
research on the continent and in its surrounding oceans; the
population of persons doing and supporting science on the continent
and its nearby islands south of 60 degrees south latitude (the
region covered by the Antarctic Treaty) varies from approximately
4,000 in summer to 1,000 in winter; in addition, approximately 1,000
personnel including ship's crew and scientists doing onboard
research are present in the waters of the treaty region; Summer
(January) population—3,687 total; Argentina 302, Australia 201,
Belgium 13, Brazil 80, Bulgaria 16, Chile 352, China 70, Finland 11,
France 100, Germany 51, India 60, Italy 106, Japan 136, South Korea
14, Netherlands 10, NZ 60, Norway 40, Peru 28, Poland 70, Russia
254, South Africa 80, Spain 43, Sweden 20, UK 192, US 1,378
(1998–99); Winter (July) population—964 total; Argentina 165,
Australia 75, Brazil 12, Chile 129, China 33, France 33, Germany 9,
India 25, Japan 40, South Korea 14, NZ 10, Poland 20, Russia 102,
South Africa 10, UK 39, US 248 (1998–99); year-round stations—42
total; Argentina 6, Australia 4, Brazil 1, Chile 4, China 2, Finland
1, France 1, Germany 1, India 1, Italy 1, Japan 1, South Korea 1, NZ
1, Norway 1, Poland 1, Russia 6, South Africa 1, Spain 1, Ukraine 1,
UK 2, US 3, Uruguay 1 (1998–99); Summer-only stations—32 total;
Argentina 3, Australia 4, Bulgaria 1, Chile 7, Germany 1, India 1,
Japan 3, NZ 1, Peru 1, Russia 3, Sweden 2, UK 5 (1998–99) in
addition, during the austral summer some nations have numerous
occupied locations such as tent camps, summer-long temporary
facilities, and mobile traverses in support of research
Government
Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Antarctica
Data code: AY
Government type: Antarctic Treaty Summary—the Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959 and entered into force on 23 June 1961, establishes the legal framework for the management of Antarctica. Administration is carried out through consultative member meetings—the 22nd Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting was in Norway in May 1998. At the end of 1998, there were 43 treaty member nations: 27 consultative and 16 acceding. Consultative (voting) members include the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national territory (some claims overlap) and 20 nonclaimant nations. The US and some other nations that have made no claims have reserved the right to do so. The US does not recognize the claims of others. The year in parentheses indicates when an acceding nation was voted to full consultative (voting) status, while no date indicates the country was an original 1959 treaty signatory. Claimant nations are—Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant consultative nations are—Belgium, Brazil (1983), Bulgaria (1978) China (1985), Ecuador (1990), Finland (1989), Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy (1987), Japan, South Korea (1989), Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989), Poland (1977), Russia, South Africa, Spain (1988), Sweden (1988), Uruguay (1985), and the US. Acceding (nonvoting) members, with year of accession in parentheses, are—Austria (1987), Canada (1988), Colombia (1988), Cuba (1984), Czech Republic (1993), Denmark (1965), Greece (1987), Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New Guinea (1981), Romania (1971), Slovakia (1993), Switzerland (1990), Turkey (1995), and Ukraine (1992). Article 1—area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose; Article 2—freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue; Article 3—free exchange of information and personnel in cooperation with the UN and other international agencies; Article 4—does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force; Article 5—prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes; Article 6—includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south; Article 7—treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance notice of all activities and of the introduction of military personnel must be given; Article 8—allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states; Article 9—frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations; Article 10—treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty; Article 11—disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the ICJ; Articles 12, 13, 14—deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations. Other agreements—some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments include—Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora (1964); Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972); Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980); a mineral resources agreement was signed in 1988 but was subsequently rejected; the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed 4 October 1991 and entered into force 14 January 1998; this agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through five specific annexes on marine pollution, fauna, and flora, environmental impact assessments, waste management, and protected areas; it prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific research.
Legal system: US law, including certain criminal offenses by or against US nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries. Some US laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C. section 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by regulation of statute: the taking of native mammals or birds; the introduction of nonindigenous plants and animals; entry into specially protected or scientific areas; the discharge or disposal of pollutants; and the importation into the US of certain items from Antarctica. Violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and one year in prison. The Departments of Treasury, Commerce, Transportation, and Interior share enforcement responsibilities. Public Law 95–541, the US Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, requires expeditions from the US to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs, Room 5801, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520, which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty. For more information, contact Permit Office, Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia 22230 (703) 306–1031, or see their website at www.nsf.gov.
Economy
Economy—overview: No economic activity is conducted at present, except for fishing off the coast and small-scale tourism, both based abroad. Antarctic fisheries in 1997–98 reported landing 92,456 metric tons. Unregulated fishing landed five to six times more than the regulated fishery, and allegedly illegal fishing in antarctic waters in 1998 resulted in the seizure (by France and Australia) of at least eight fishing ships. A total of 9,604 tourists visited in the 1997–98 summer, up from the 7,413 who visited the previous year. Nearly all of them were passengers on 13 commercial (nongovernmental) ships that made 92 trips during the summer. Around 200 tourists were on yachts or commercial aircraft. Most tourist trips lasted approximately two weeks.
Communications
Telephones: NA
Telephone system:
domestic: NA
international: NA
Radio broadcast stations: AM NA, FM 2 (American Forces Antarctic
Network), shortwave 1 (Argentina Antarctic Base de Egercito
Esperanza) (1998)
Radios: NA
Television broadcast stations: 1 (American Forces Antarctic
Network-McMurdo) (1997)
Televisions: NA
Transportation
Ports and harbors: none; offshore anchorage
Airports: 17; 27 stations, operated by 16 national governments party to the Antarctic Treaty, have landing facilities for either helicopters and/or fixed-wing aircraft; commercial enterprises operate two additional air facilities; helicopter pads are available at 27 stations; runways at 15 locations are gravel, sea-ice, blue-ice, or compacted snow suitable for landing wheeled, fixed-wing aircraft; of these, 1 is greater than 3 km in length, 6 are between 2 km and 3 km in length, 3 are between 1 km and 2 km in length, 3 are less than 1 km in length, and 2 are of unknown length; snow surface skiways, limited to use by ski-equipped, fixed-wing aircraft, are available at another 15 locations; of these, 4 are greater than 3 km in length, 3 are between 2 km and 3 km in length, 2 are between 1 km and 2 km in length, 2 are less than 1 km in length, and 4 are of unknown length; airports generally subject to severe restrictions and limitations resulting from extreme seasonal and geographic conditions; airports do not meet ICAO standards; advance approval from the respective governmental or nongovernmental operating organization required for landing (1998 est.)
Airports—with unpaved runways: total: 17 over 3,047 m: 3 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 4 under 914 m: 5 (1998 est.)
Heliports: 1 (1998 est.)
Military
Military—note: the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military maneuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon; it permits the use of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes
Transnational Issues
Disputes—international: Antarctic Treaty defers claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary above); sections (some overlapping) claimed by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France (Adelie Land), New Zealand (Ross Dependency), Norway (Queen Maud Land), and UK; the US and most other nations do not recognize the territorial claims of other nations and have made no claims themselves (the US reserves the right to do so); no formal claims have been made in the sector between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west
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@Antigua and Barbuda—————————
Geography
Location: Caribbean, islands between the Caribbean Sea and the
North Atlantic Ocean, east-southeast of Puerto Rico
Geographic coordinates: 17 03 N, 61 48 W
Map references: Central America and the Caribbean
Area:
total: 440 sq km
land: 440 sq km
water: 0 sq km
note: includes Redonda
Area—comparative: 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC
Land boundaries: 0 km
Coastline: 153 km
Maritime claims:
contiguous zone: 24 nm
continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
territorial sea: 12 nm
Climate: tropical marine; little seasonal temperature variation
Terrain: mostly low-lying limestone and coral islands, with some higher volcanic areas
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m highest point: Boggy Peak 402 m
Natural resources: NEGL; pleasant climate fosters tourism
Land use:
arable land: 18%
permanent crops: 0%
permanent pastures: 9%
forests and woodland: 11%
other: 62% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: NA sq km
Natural hazards: hurricanes and tropical storms (July to
October); periodic droughts
Environment—current issues: water management?a major concern because of limited natural fresh water resources—is further hampered by the clearing of trees to increase crop production, causing rainfall to run off quickly
Environment—international agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto
Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental
Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping,
Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
People
Population: 64,246 (July 1999 est.)
Age structure:
0–14 years: 26% (male 8,414; female 8,137)
15–64 years: 69% (male 21,936; female 22,227)
65 years and over: 5% (male 1,504; female 2,028) (1999 est.)
Population growth rate: 0.36% (1999 est.)
Birth rate: 16.22 births/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Death rate: 5.76 deaths/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Net migration rate: −6.9 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Sex ratio:
at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female
15–64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.74 male(s)/female
total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (1999 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 20.69 deaths/1,000 live births (1999 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: total population: 71.46 years male: 69.06 years female: 73.98 years (1999 est.)
Total fertility rate: 1.72 children born/woman (1999 est.)
Nationality: noun: Antiguan(s), Barbudan(s) adjective: Antiguan, Barbudan
Ethnic groups: black, British, Portuguese, Lebanese, Syrian
Religions: Anglican (predominant), other Protestant sects, some
Roman Catholic
Languages: English (official), local dialects
Literacy:
definition: age 15 and over has completed five or more years of
schooling
total population: 89%
male: 90%
female: 88% (1960 est.)
Government
Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Antigua and Barbuda
Data code: AC
Government type: parliamentary democracy
Capital: Saint John's
Administrative divisions: 6 parishes and 2 dependencies*;
Barbuda*, Redonda*, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Mary, Saint
Paul, Saint Peter, Saint Philip
Independence: 1 November 1981 (from UK)
National holiday: Independence Day, 1 November (1981)
Constitution: 1 November 1981
Legal system: based on English common law
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive branch:
chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952),
represented by Governor General James B. CARLISLE (since NA 1993)
head of government: Prime Minister Lester Bryant BIRD (since 8 March
1994)
cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the governor general on
the advice of the prime minister
elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general chosen
by the monarch on the advice of the prime minister; prime minister
appointed by the governor general
Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate
(17-member body appointed by the governor general) and the House of
Representatives (17 seats; members are elected by proportional
representation to serve five-year terms)
elections: House of Representatives—last held 9 March 1999 (next to
be held NA March 2004)
election results: percent of vote by party—NA; seats by party—ALP
12, UPP 4, independent 1
Judicial branch: Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court (based in Saint
Lucia) (one judge of the Supreme Court is a resident of the islands
and presides over the Court of Summary Jurisdiction)
Political parties and leaders: Antigua Labor Party or ALP [Lester
coalition of three opposition political parties—United National
Democratic Party or UNDP, Antigua Caribbean Liberation Movement or
ACLM, and the Progressive Labor Movement or PLM
Political pressure groups and leaders: Antigua Trades and Labor
International organization participation: ACP, C, Caricom, CDB,
ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO,
IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ISO
(subscriber), ITU, NAM (observer), OAS, OECS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD,
UNESCO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WTrO
Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Lionel Alexander HURST chancery: 3216 New Mexico Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20016 consulate(s) general: Miami
Diplomatic representation from the US: the US does not have an embassy in Antigua and Barbuda (embassy closed 30 June 1994); the US Ambassador to Barbados is accredited to Antigua and Barbuda
Flag description: red, with an inverted isosceles triangle based on the top edge of the flag; the triangle contains three horizontal bands of black (top), light blue, and white, with a yellow rising sun in the black band
Economy
Economy—overview: Tourism continues to be by far the dominant activity in the economy accounting directly or indirectly for more than half of GDP. Increased tourist arrivals have helped spur growth in the construction and transport sectors. The dual island nation's agricultural production is mainly directed to the domestic market; the sector is constrained by the limited water supply and labor shortages that reflect the pull of higher wages in tourism and construction. Manufacturing comprises enclave-type assembly for export with major products being bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components. Prospects for economic growth in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialized world, especially in the US, which accounts for about half of all tourist arrivals.
GDP: purchasing power parity—$503 million (1998 est.)
GDP—real growth rate: 6% (1998 est.)
GDP—per capita: purchasing power parity?$7,900 (1998 est.)
GDP—composition by sector: agriculture: 4% industry: 12.5% services: 83.5% (1996 est.)
Population below poverty line: NA%
Household income or consumption by percentage share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate (consumer prices): −1.1% (1997)
Labor force: 30,000
Labor force—by occupation: commerce and services 82%, agriculture 11%, industry 7% (1983)
Unemployment rate: 9% (1997 est.)
Budget:
revenues: $122.6 million
expenditures: $141.2 million, including capital expenditures of
$17.3 million (1997 est.)
Industries: tourism, construction, light manufacturing (clothing,
alcohol, household appliances)
Industrial production growth rate: 6% (1997 est.)
Electricity—production: 95 million kWh (1996)
Electricity—production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1996)
Electricity—consumption: 95 million kWh (1996)
Electricity—exports: 0 kWh (1996)
Electricity—imports: 0 kWh (1996)
Agriculture—products: cotton, fruits, vegetables, bananas, coconuts, cucumbers, mangoes, sugarcane; livestock
Exports: $37.8 million (1997)
Exports—commodities: petroleum products 48%, manufactures 23%,
food and live animals 4%, machinery and transport equipment 17%
Exports—partners: OECS 26%, Barbados 15%, Guyana 4%, Trinidad and
Tobago 2%, US 0.3%
Imports: $325.5 million (1997)
Imports—commodities: food and live animals, machinery and transport equipment, manufactures, chemicals, oil
Imports—partners: US 27%, UK 16%, Canada 4%, OECS 3%, other 50%
Debt—external: $240 million (1997 est.)
Economic aid—recipient: $2.3 million (1995)
Currency: 1 East Caribbean dollar (EC$) = 100 cents
Exchange rates: East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1—2.7000 (fixed rate since 1976)
Fiscal year: 1 April—31 March
Communications
Telephones: 6,700
Telephone system:
domestic: good automatic telephone system
international: 1 coaxial submarine cable; satellite earth station—1
Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); tropospheric scatter to Saba (Netherlands
Antilles) and Guadeloupe
Radio broadcast stations: AM 4, FM 2, shortwave 0 (repeater
transmitters for Deutsche Welle and BBC world broadcasts) (1998)
Radios: NA
Television broadcast stations: 2 (1997)
Televisions: 28,000 (1993 est.)
Transportation
Railways:
total: 77 km
narrow gauge: 64 km 0.760-m gauge; 13 km 0.610-m gauge (used almost
exclusively for handling sugarcane)
Highways:
total: 250 km (1996 est.)
paved: NA km
unpaved: NA km
Ports and harbors: Saint John's
Merchant marine:
total: 517 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 2,706,126
GRT/3,542,664 DWT
ships by type: bulk 21, cargo 338, chemical tanker 7, combination
bulk 2, container 111, liquefied gas tanker 2, multifunctional
large-load carrier 1, oil tanker 4, refrigerated cargo 9,
roll-on/roll-off cargo 21, vehicle carrier 1
note: a flag of convenience registry: Germany owns 10 ships,
Slovenia 2, and Cyprus 2 (1998 est.)
Airports: 3 (1998 est.)
Airports—with paved runways: total: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 under 914 m: 1 (1998 est.)
Airports—with unpaved runways:
total: 1
under 914 m: 1 (1998 est.)
Military
Military branches: Royal Antigua and Barbuda Defense Force, Royal
Antigua and Barbuda Police Force (includes Coast Guard)
Military expenditures—dollar figure: $NA
Military expenditures—percent of GDP: NA%
Transnational Issues
Disputes—international: none
Illicit drugs: over the long-term, considered a relatively minor transshipment point for narcotics bound for the US and Europe and recently, a transshipment point for heroin from Europe to the US; potentially more significant as a drug-money-laundering center
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@Arctic Ocean——————
Geography
Location: body of water mostly north of the Arctic Circle
Geographic coordinates: 90 00 N, 0 00 E
Map references: Arctic Region
Area:
total: 14.056 million sq km
note: includes Baffin Bay, Barents Sea, Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea,
East Siberian Sea, Greenland Sea, Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Kara
Sea, Laptev Sea, Northwest Passage, and other tributary water bodies
Area—comparative: slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the
US; smallest of the world's four oceans (after Pacific Ocean,
Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean)
Coastline: 45,389 km
Climate: polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges; winters characterized by continuous darkness, cold and stable weather conditions, and clear skies; summers characterized by continuous daylight, damp and foggy weather, and weak cyclones with rain or snow
Terrain: central surface covered by a perennial drifting polar icepack that averages about 3 meters in thickness, although pressure ridges may be three times that size; clockwise drift pattern in the Beaufort Gyral Stream, but nearly straight-line movement from the New Siberian Islands (Russia) to Denmark Strait (between Greenland and Iceland); the icepack is surrounded by open seas during the summer, but more than doubles in size during the winter and extends to the encircling landmasses; the ocean floor is about 50% continental shelf (highest percentage of any ocean) with the remainder a central basin interrupted by three submarine ridges (Alpha Cordillera, Nansen Cordillera, and Lomonsov Ridge)
Elevation extremes:
lowest point: Fram Basin −4,665 m
highest point: sea level 0 m
Natural resources: sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits,
polymetallic nodules, oil and gas fields, fish, marine mammals
(seals and whales)
Natural hazards: ice islands occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island; icebergs calved from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada; permafrost in islands; virtually icelocked from October to June; ships subject to superstructure icing from October to May
Environment—current issues: endangered marine species include
walruses and whales; fragile ecosystem slow to change and slow to
recover from disruptions or damage
Environment—international agreements:
party to: none of the selected agreements
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Geography—note: major chokepoint is the southern Chukchi Sea (northern access to the Pacific Ocean via the Bering Strait); strategic location between North America and Russia; shortest marine link between the extremes of eastern and western Russia; floating research stations operated by the US and Russia; maximum snow cover in March or April about 20 to 50 centimeters over the frozen ocean; snow cover lasts about 10 months
Government
Data code: none; the US Government has not approved a standard for hydrographic codes—see the Cross-Reference List of Hydrographic Data Codes appendix
Economy
Economy—overview: Economic activity is limited to the exploitation of natural resources, including petroleum, natural gas, fish, and seals.
Communications
Telephone system: international: no submarine cables
Transportation
Ports and harbors: Churchill (Canada), Murmansk (Russia), Prudhoe
Bay (US)
Transportation—note: sparse network of air, ocean, river, and
land routes; the Northwest Passage (North America) and Northern Sea
Route (Eurasia) are important seasonal waterways
Transnational Issues
Disputes—international: some maritime disputes (see littoral states); Svalbard is the focus of a maritime boundary dispute between Norway and Russia
======================================================================
@Argentina————
Introduction
Background: A part of the Spanish empire until independence in 1816, Argentina subsequently experienced periods of internal political conflict between conservatives and liberals and between civilian and military factions. Meantime, thanks to rich natural resources and foreign investment, a modern agriculture and a diversified industry were gradually developed. After World War II, a long period of Peronist dictatorship was followed by rule by a military junta. Democratic elections finally came in 1983, but both the political and economic atmosphere remain susceptible to turmoil.
Geography
Location: Southern South America, bordering the South Atlantic
Ocean, between Chile and Uruguay
Geographic coordinates: 34 00 S, 64 00 W
Map references: South America
Area:
total: 2,766,890 sq km
land: 2,736,690 sq km
water: 30,200 sq km
Area—comparative: slightly less than three-tenths the size of the
US
Land boundaries:
total: 9,665 km
border countries: Bolivia 832 km, Brazil 1,224 km, Chile 5,150 km,
Paraguay 1,880 km, Uruguay 579 km
Coastline: 4,989 km
Maritime claims:
contiguous zone: 24 nm
continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
territorial sea: 12 nm
Climate: mostly temperate; arid in southeast; subantarctic in
southwest
Terrain: rich plains of the Pampas in northern half, flat to
rolling plateau of Patagonia in south, rugged Andes along western
border
Elevation extremes:
lowest point: Salinas Chicas −40 m (located on Peninsula Valdes)
highest point: Cerro Aconcagua 6,962 m
Natural resources: fertile plains of the pampas, lead, zinc, tin,
copper, iron ore, manganese, petroleum, uranium
Land use:
arable land: 9%
permanent crops: 1%
permanent pastures: 52%
forests and woodland: 19%
other: 19% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: 17,000 sq km (1993 est.)
Natural hazards: San Miguel de Tucuman and Mendoza areas in the Andes subject to earthquakes; pamperos are violent windstorms that can strike the Pampas and northeast; heavy flooding
Environment—current issues: erosion results from inadequate flood controls and improper land use practices; irrigated soil degradation; desertification; air pollution in Buenos Aires and other major cities; water pollution in urban areas; rivers becoming polluted due to increased pesticide and fertilizer use
Environment—international agreements:
party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty,
Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species,
Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine
Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution,
Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Marine Life
Conservation
Geography—note: second-largest country in South America (after
Brazil); strategic location relative to sea lanes between South
Atlantic and South Pacific Oceans (Strait of Magellan, Beagle
Channel, Drake Passage)
People
Population: 36,737,664 (July 1999 est.)
Age structure:
0–14 years: 27% (male 5,124,087; female 4,932,060)
15–64 years: 62% (male 11,457,399; female 11,469,346)
65 years and over: 11% (male 1,553,158; female 2,201,614) (1999 est.)
Population growth rate: 1.29% (1999 est.)
Birth rate: 19.91 births/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Death rate: 7.64 deaths/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Net migration rate: 0.65 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Sex ratio:
at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
15–64 years: 1 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.71 male(s)/female
total population: 0.97 male(s)/female (1999 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 18.41 deaths/1,000 live births (1999 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: total population: 74.76 years male: 71.13 years female: 78.56 years (1999 est.)
Total fertility rate: 2.66 children born/woman (1999 est.)
Nationality: noun: Argentine(s) adjective: Argentine
Ethnic groups: white 85%, mestizo, Amerindian, or other nonwhite
groups 15%
Religions: nominally Roman Catholic 90% (less than 20%
practicing), Protestant 2%, Jewish 2%, other 6%
Languages: Spanish (official), English, Italian, German, French
Literacy:
definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 96.2%
male: 96.2%
female: 96.2% (1995 est.)
Government
Country name:
conventional long form: Argentine Republic
conventional short form: Argentina
local long form: Republica Argentina
local short form: Argentina
Data code: AR
Government type: republic
Capital: Buenos Aires
Administrative divisions: 23 provinces (provincias,
singular—provincia), and 1 federal district* (distrito federal);
Buenos Aires; Catamarca; Chaco; Chubut; Cordoba; Corrientes;
Distrito Federal*; Entre Rios; Formosa; Jujuy; La Pampa; La Rioja;
Mendoza; Misiones; Neuquen; Rio Negro; Salta; San Juan; San Luis;
Santa Cruz; Santa Fe; Santiago del Estero; Tierra del Fuego,
Antartida e Islas del Atlantico Sur; Tucuman
note: the US does not recognize any claims to Antarctica
Independence: 9 July 1816 (from Spain)
National holiday: Revolution Day, 25 May (1810)
Constitution: 1 May 1853; revised August 1994
Legal system: mixture of US and West European legal systems; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive branch:
chief of state: President Carlos Saul MENEM (since 8 July 1989);
Vice President Carlos RUCKAUF (since 8 July 1995); note—the
president is both the chief of state and head of government
head of government: President Carlos Saul MENEM (since 8 July 1989);
Vice President Carlos RUCKAUF (since 8 July 1995); note—the
president is both the chief of state and head of government
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president
elections: president and vice president elected on the same ticket
by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held 14 May 1995
(next to be held NA October 1999)
election results: Carlos Saul MENEM reelected president; percent of
vote—NA
Legislative branch: bicameral National Congress or Congreso Nacional consists of the Senate (72 seats; formerly, three members appointed by each of the provincial legislatures; presently transitioning to one-third of the members being elected every two years to a six-year term) and the Chamber of Deputies (257 seats; one-half of the members elected every two years to four-year terms) elections: Senate—transition phase will continue through 2001 elections when all seats will be fully contested; winners will randomly draw to determine whether they will serve a two-year, four-year, or full six-year term; Chamber of Deputies—last held 26 October 1997 (next to be held NA October 1999) election results: Senate—percent of vote by party—NA; seats by party—PJ 39, UCR 1, others 32; Chamber of Deputies—percent of vote by party—NA; seats by party—PJ 119, UCR 69, Frepaso 36, other 33
Judicial branch: Supreme Court (Corte Suprema), the nine Supreme
Court judges are appointed by the president with approval of the
Senate
Political parties and leaders: Justicialist Party or PJ [Carlos
Saul MENEM] (Peronist umbrella political organization); Radical
NA]; Front for a Country in Solidarity or Frepaso (a four-party
Political pressure groups and leaders: Peronist-dominated labor movement; General Confederation of Labor or CGT (Peronist-leaning umbrella labor organization); Argentine Industrial Union (manufacturers' association); Argentine Rural Society (large landowners' association); Argentine Association of Pharmaceutical Labs (CILFA); business organizations; students; the Roman Catholic Church; the Armed Forces
International organization participation: AfDB, Australia Group,
BCIE, CCC, ECLAC, FAO, G- 6, G-11, G-15, G-19, G-24, G-77, IADB,
IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO,
IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, LAES,
LAIA, Mercosur, MINURSO, MIPONUH, MTCR, NSG, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA,
RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNITAR,
UNMIBH, UNMOP, UNPREDEP, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO,
WToO, WTrO
Diplomatic representation in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador Diego Ramiro GUELAR
chancery: 1600 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami,
New York, and San Francisco
Diplomatic representation from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant)
embassy: 4300 Colombia, 1425 Buenos Aires
mailing address: international mail: use street address; APO
address: Unit 4334, APO AA 34034
Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of light blue (top), white, and light blue; centered in the white band is a radiant yellow sun with a human face known as the Sun of May
Economy
Economy—overview: Argentina benefits from rich natural resources, a highly literate population, an export-oriented agricultural sector, and a diversified industrial base. However, when President Carlos MENEM took office in 1989, the country had piled up huge external debts, inflation had reached 200% per month, and output was plummeting. To combat the economic crisis, the government embarked on a path of trade liberalization, deregulation, and privatization. In 1991, it implemented radical monetary reforms which pegged the peso to the US dollar and limited the growth in the monetary base by law to the growth in reserves. Inflation fell sharply in subsequent years. The Mexican peso crisis produced capital flight, the loss of banking system deposits, and a severe, but short-lived, recession in 1995; a series of reforms to bolster the domestic banking system followed. Real GDP growth recovered strongly, reaching almost 9% in 1997. In 1998, increasing investor anxiety over Brazil, its largest trading partner, produced the highest domestic interest rates in more than three years and slowed growth to 4.3%. Despite the relatively high level of growth in recent years, double-digit unemployment rates have persisted, largely because of rigidities in Argentina's labor laws.
GDP: purchasing power parity—$374 billion (1998 est.)
GDP—real growth rate: 4.3% (1998 est.)
GDP—per capita: purchasing power parity?$10,300 (1998 est.)
GDP—composition by sector: agriculture: 7% industry: 37% services: 56% (1997 est.)
Population below poverty line: 25.5% (1991 est.)
Household income or consumption by percentage share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1% (1998 est.)
Labor force: 14 million (1997)
Labor force—by occupation: agriculture 12%, industry 31%, services 57% (1985 est.)
Unemployment rate: 12% (October 1998)
Budget:
revenues: $56 billion
expenditures: $60 billion, including capital expenditures of $4
billion (1998 est.)
Industries: food processing, motor vehicles, consumer durables,
textiles, chemicals and petrochemicals, printing, metallurgy, steel
Industrial production growth rate: 2% (1998)
Electricity—production: 64.669 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity—production by source: fossil fuel: 45% hydro: 44.3% nuclear: 10.7% other: 0% (1996)
Electricity—consumption: 67.509 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity—exports: 330 million kWh (1996)
Electricity—imports: 3.17 billion kWh (1996)
Agriculture—products: sunflower seeds, lemons, soybeans, grapes, corn, tobacco, peanuts, tea, wheat; livestock
Exports: $26 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
Exports—commodities: cereals, feed, motor vehicles, crude
petroleum, steel manufactures
Exports—partners: Brazil 31%, US 8%, Chile 7.0%, China 3%,
Uruguay 3% (1997 est.)
Imports: $32 billion (c.i.f., 1998 est.)
Imports—commodities: motor vehicles, motor vehicle parts, organic
chemicals, telecommunications equipment, plastics
Imports—partners: Brazil 23%, US 20%, Italy 6%, Germany 5%,
France 5% (1997)
Debt—external: $133 billion (1998 est.)
Economic aid—recipient: $2.833 billion (1995)
Currency: 1 peso = 100 centavos
Exchange rates: peso is pegged to the US dollar at an exchange rate of 1 peso = $1
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications
Telephones: 4.6 million (1990)
Telephone system: 12,000 public telephones; extensive modern system but many families do not have telephones; despite extensive use of microwave radio relay, the telephone system frequently grounds out during rainstorms, even in Buenos Aires domestic: microwave radio relay and a domestic satellite system with 40 earth stations serve the trunk network international: satellite earth stations—2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
Radio broadcast stations: AM 260 (including 10 inactive stations), FM NA (probably more than 1,000, mostly unlicensed), shortwave 6 (1998 est.)
Radios: 22.3 million (1991 est.)
Television broadcast stations: 42 (in addition, there are 444 repeaters) (1997)
Televisions: 7.165 million (1991 est.)
Transportation
Railways:
total: 37,830 km
broad gauge: 23,992 km 1.676-m gauge (167 km electrified)
standard gauge: 2,765 km 1.435-m gauge
narrow gauge: 11,073 km 1.000-m gauge (26 km electrified)
Highways:
total: 208,350 km
paved: 47,550 km (including 567 km of expressways)
unpaved: 160,800 km (1998 est.)
Waterways: 11,000 km navigable
Pipelines: crude oil 4,090 km; petroleum products 2,900 km;
natural gas 9,918 km
Ports and harbors: Bahia Blanca, Buenos Aires, Comodoro
Rivadavia, Concepcion del Uruguay, La Plata, Mar del Plata,
Necochea, Rio Gallegos, Rosario, Santa Fe, Ushuaia
Merchant marine:
total: 29 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 233,856 GRT/363,335 DWT
ships by type: cargo 10, container 1, oil tanker 13, railcar carrier
1, refrigerated cargo 2, roll-on/roll-off cargo 1, short-sea
passenger 1 (1998 est.)
Airports: 1,374 (1998 est.)
Airports—with paved runways:
total: 141
over 3,047 m: 5
2,438 to 3,047 m: 26
1,524 to 2,437 m: 58
914 to 1,523 m: 45
under 914 m: 7 (1998 est.)
Airports—with unpaved runways:
total: 1,233
over 3,047 m: 2
2,438 to 3,047 m: 2
1,524 to 2,437 m: 67
914 to 1,523 m: 621
under 914 m: 541 (1998 est.)
Military
Military branches: Argentine Army, Navy of the Argentine Republic (includes Naval Aviation, Marines, and Coast Guard), Argentine Air Force, National Gendarmerie, National Aeronautical Police Force
Military manpower—military age: 20 years of age
Military manpower—availability:
males age 15–49: 9,169,681 (1999 est.)
Military manpower—fit for military service:
males age 15–49: 7,435,551 (1999 est.)
Military manpower—reaching military age annually:
males: 343,038 (1999 est.)
Military expenditures—dollar figure: $4.6 billion (1998)
Military expenditures—percent of GDP: 1.4% (1998)
Transnational Issues
Disputes—international: short section of the southwestern boundary with Chile is indefinite—process to resolve boundary issues is underway; claims UK-administered Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas); claims UK-administered South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands; territorial claim in Antarctica
Illicit drugs: increasing use as a transshipment country for cocaine headed for Europe and the US; increasing money-laundering center
======================================================================
@Armenia———
Introduction
Background: Armenia was one of the 15 successor republics to the USSR in December 1991. Its leaders remain preoccupied by the long conflict with Azerbaijan over the Nagorno-Karabakh enclave. Although a cease-fire has been in effect since May 1994, the sides have not made substantial progress toward a peaceful resolution. In January 1998, differences between President TER-PETROSSIAN and members of his cabinet over the Nagorno-Karabakh peace process came to a head. With the prime minister, defense minister, and security minister arrayed against him, an isolated TER-PETROSSIAN resigned the presidency on 3 February 1998. Prime Minister Robert KOCHARIAN was elected president in March 1998. Concerns about Armenia's economic performance have continued since 1997 with a slowdown in growth and the serious impact of the 1998 financial crisis in Russia.
Geography
Location: Southwestern Asia, east of Turkey
Geographic coordinates: 40 00 N, 45 00 E
Map references: Commonwealth of Independent States
Area:
total: 29,800 sq km
land: 28,400 sq km
water: 1,400 sq km
Area—comparative: slightly smaller than Maryland
Land boundaries:
total: 1,254 km
border countries: Azerbaijan-proper 566 km, Azerbaijan-Naxcivan
exclave 221 km, Georgia 164 km, Iran 35 km, Turkey 268 km
Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
Climate: highland continental, hot summers, cold winters
Terrain: Armenian Highland with mountains; little forest land; fast flowing rivers; good soil in Aras River valley
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Debed River 400 m highest point: Aragats Lerr 4,095 m
Natural resources: small deposits of gold, copper, molybdenum,
zinc, alumina
Land use:
arable land: 17%
permanent crops: 3%
permanent pastures: 24%
forests and woodland: 15%
other: 41% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: 2,870 sq km (1993 est.)
Natural hazards: occasionally severe earthquakes; droughts
Environment—current issues: soil pollution from toxic chemicals such as DDT; energy blockade, the result of conflict with Azerbaijan, has led to deforestation when citizens scavenged for firewood; pollution of Hrazdan (Razdan) and Aras Rivers; the draining of Sevana Lich (Lake Sevan), a result of its use as a source for hydropower, threatens drinking water supplies; restart of Metsamor nuclear power plant without adequate (IAEA-recommended) safety and backup systems
Environment—international agreements: party to: Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Nuclear Test Ban, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants
Geography—note: landlocked
People
Population: 3,409,234 (July 1999 est.)
Age structure:
0–14 years: 25% (male 442,117; female 425,561)
15–64 years: 66% (male 1,100,334; female 1,148,595)
65 years and over: 9% (male 122,170; female 170,457) (1999 est.)
Population growth rate: −0.38% (1999 est.)
Birth rate: 13.53 births/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Death rate: 9.03 deaths/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Net migration rate: −8.26 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Sex ratio:
at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
15–64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.72 male(s)/female
total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (1999 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 41.12 deaths/1,000 live births (1999 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: total population: 66.56 years male: 62.21 years female: 71.13 years (1999 est.)
Total fertility rate: 1.68 children born/woman (1999 est.)
Nationality: noun: Armenian(s) adjective: Armenian
Ethnic groups: Armenian 93%, Azeri 3%, Russian 2%, other (mostly
Yezidi Kurds) 2% (1989)
note: as of the end of 1993, virtually all Azeris had emigrated from
Armenia
Religions: Armenian Orthodox 94%
Languages: Armenian 96%, Russian 2%, other 2%
Literacy:
definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 99%
male: 99%
female: 98% (1989 est.)
Government
Country name:
conventional long form: Republic of Armenia
conventional short form: Armenia
local long form: Hayastani Hanrapetut'yun
local short form: Hayastan
former: Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic; Armenian Republic
Data code: AM
Government type: republic
Capital: Yerevan
Administrative divisions: 10 provinces (marzer, singular—marz)
and 1 city* (k'aghak'ner, singular—k'aghak'); Aragatsotn, Ararat,
Armavir, Geghark'unik', Kotayk', Lorri, Shirak, Syunik', Tavush,
Vayots' Dzor, Yerevan*
Independence: 28 May 1918–2 December 1920 (First Armenian
Republic); 23 September 1991 (from Soviet Union)
National holiday: Referendum Day, 21 September
Constitution: adopted by nationwide referendum 5 July 1995
