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ОглавлениеCoastline: 0 km (landlocked)
Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
Climate: varies; tropical in southern plains; cool winters and hot summers in central valleys; severe winters and cool summers in Himalayas
Terrain: mostly mountainous with some fertile valleys and savanna
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Drangme Chhu 97 m highest point: Kula Kangri 7,553 m
Natural resources: timber, hydropower, gypsum, calcium carbide
Land use:
arable land: 2%
permanent crops: 0%
permanent pastures: 6%
forests and woodland: 66%
other: 26% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: 340 sq km (1993 est.)
Natural hazards: violent storms coming down from the Himalayas are the source of the country's name which translates as Land of the Thunder Dragon; frequent landslides during the rainy season
Environment—current issues: soil erosion; limited access to potable water
Environment—international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Nuclear Test Ban signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea
Geography—note: landlocked; strategic location between China and
India; controls several key Himalayan mountain passes
People
Population: 1,951,965 (July 1999 est.)
note: other estimates range as low as 600,000
Age structure:
0–14 years: 40% (male 405,745; female 376,738)
15–64 years: 56% (male 561,754; female 530,420)
65 years and over: 4% (male 39,251; female 38,057) (1999 est.)
Population growth rate: 2.25% (1999 est.)
Birth rate: 36.76 births/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Death rate: 14.26 deaths/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Sex ratio:
at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.08 male(s)/female
15–64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 1.03 male(s)/female
total population: 1.07 male(s)/female (1999 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 109.33 deaths/1,000 live births (1999 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: total population: 52.75 years male: 53.19 years female: 52.29 years (1999 est.)
Total fertility rate: 5.16 children born/woman (1999 est.)
Nationality:
noun: Bhutanese (singular and plural)
adjective: Bhutanese
Ethnic groups: Bhote 50%, ethnic Nepalese 35%, indigenous or
migrant tribes 15%
Religions: Lamaistic Buddhism 75%, Indian- and
Nepalese-influenced Hinduism 25%
Languages: Dzongkha (official), Bhotes speak various Tibetan
dialects, Nepalese speak various Nepalese dialects
Literacy:
definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 42.2%
male: 56.2%
female: 28.1% (1995 est.)
People—note: refugee issue over the presence in Nepal of approximately 91,000 Bhutanese refugees, 90% of whom are in seven United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) camps
Government
Country name:
conventional long form: Kingdom of Bhutan
conventional short form: Bhutan
Data code: BT
Government type: monarchy; special treaty relationship with India
Capital: Thimphu
Administrative divisions: 18 districts (dzongkhag, singular and
plural); Bumthang, Chhukha, Chirang, Daga, Geylegphug, Ha, Lhuntshi,
Mongar, Paro, Pemagatsel, Punakha, Samchi, Samdrup Jongkhar,
Shemgang, Tashigang, Thimphu, Tongsa, Wangdi Phodrang
Independence: 8 August 1949 (from India)
National holiday: National Day, 17 December (1907) (Ugyen
WANGCHUCK became first hereditary king)
Constitution: no written constitution or bill of rights
note: Bhutan uses 1953 Royal decree for the Constitution of the
National Assembly
Legal system: based on Indian law and English common law; has not
accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Suffrage: each family has one vote in village-level elections
Executive branch:
chief of state: King Jigme Singye WANGCHUCK (since 24 July 1972);
note—the monarch is both the chief of state and head of government
head of government: King Jigme Singye WANGCHUCK (since 24 July
1972); note—the monarch is both the chief of state and head of
government
cabinet: Council of Ministers (Lhengye Shungtsog) appointed by the
monarch, approved by the National Assembly
note: there is also a Royal Advisory Council (Lodoi Tsokde), members
nominated by the monarch
elections: none; the monarch is hereditary
Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Tshogdu (150
seats; 105 elected from village constituencies, 10 represent
religious bodies, and 35 are designated by the monarch to represent
government and other secular interests; members serve three-year
terms)
elections: last held NA (next to be held NA)
election results: NA
Judicial branch: the Supreme Court of Appeal is the monarch; High
Court, judges appointed by the monarch
Political parties and leaders: no legal parties
Political pressure groups and leaders: United Front for Democracy
(exiled); Buddhist clergy; Indian merchant community; ethnic
Nepalese organizations leading militant antigovernment campaign
International organization participation: AsDB, CP, ESCAP, FAO,
G-77, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFAD, IMF, Intelsat, IOC, ITU, NAM, OPCW,
SAARC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO
Diplomatic representation in the US: none; note—Bhutan has a
Permanent Mission to the UN; address: 2 United Nations Plaza, 27th
Bhutanese mission to the UN has consular jurisdiction in the US
consulate(s) general: New York
Diplomatic representation from the US: the US and Bhutan have no formal diplomatic relations, although informal contact is maintained between the Bhutanese and US Embassy in New Delhi (India)
Flag description: divided diagonally from the lower hoist side corner; the upper triangle is yellow and the lower triangle is orange; centered along the dividing line is a large black and white dragon facing away from the hoist side
Economy
Economy—overview: The economy, one of the world's smallest and least developed, is based on agriculture and forestry, which provide the main livelihood for 90% of the population and account for about 40% of GDP. Agriculture consists largely of subsistence farming and animal husbandry. Rugged mountains dominate the terrain and make the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. The economy is closely aligned with India's through strong trade and monetary links. The industrial sector is technologically backward, with most production of the cottage industry type. Most development projects, such as road construction, rely on Indian migrant labor. Bhutan's hydropower potential and its attraction for tourists are key resources. The Bhutanese Government has made some progress in expanding the nation's productive base and improving social welfare. Model education, social, and environment programs in Bhutan are underway with support from multilateral development organizations. Each economic program takes into account the government's desire to protect the country's environment and cultural traditions. Detailed controls and uncertain policies in areas like industrial licensing, trade, labor, and finance continue to hamper foreign investment.
GDP: purchasing power parity—$1.9 billion (1998 est.)
GDP—real growth rate: 6.5% (1998 est.)
GDP—per capita: purchasing power parity?$1,000 (1998 est.)
GDP—composition by sector: agriculture: 38% industry: 38% services: 24% (1997)
Population below poverty line: NA%
Household income or consumption by percentage share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 7.4% (1997 est.)
Labor force: NA
note: massive lack of skilled labor
Labor force—by occupation: agriculture 93%, services 5%, industry
and commerce 2%
Unemployment rate: NA%
Budget:
revenues: $146 million
expenditures: $152 million, including capital expenditures of $NA
(FY95/96 est.)
note: the government of India finances nearly three-fifths of
Bhutan's budget expenditures
Industries: cement, wood products, processed fruits, alcoholic
beverages, calcium carbide
Industrial production growth rate: 9.3% (1996 est.)
Electricity—production: 1.717 billion kWh (1996) note: exports electricity to India
Electricity—production by source: fossil fuel: 0.41% hydro: 99.59% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1996)
Electricity—consumption: 246 million kWh (1996)
Electricity—exports: 1.475 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity—imports: 4 million kWh (1996)
Agriculture—products: rice, corn, root crops, citrus, foodgrains; dairy products, eggs
Exports: $99 million (f.o.b., 1997 est.)
Exports—commodities: cardamom, gypsum, timber, handicrafts, cement, fruit, electricity (to India), precious stones, spices
Exports—partners: India 94%, Bangladesh
Imports: $131 million (c.i.f., 1997 est.)
Imports—commodities: fuel and lubricants, grain, machinery and parts, vehicles, fabrics, rice
Imports—partners: India 77%, Japan, UK, Germany, US
Debt—external: $87 million (1996)
Economic aid—recipient: $73.8 million (1995)
Currency: 1 ngultrum (Nu) = 100 chetrum; note—Indian currency is also legal tender
Exchange rates: ngultrum (Nu) per US$1—42.508 (January 1999), 41.259 (1998), 36.313 (1997), 35.433 (1996), 32.427 (1995), 31.374 (1994); note—the Bhutanese ngultrum is at par with the Indian rupee
Fiscal year: 1 July—30 June
Communications
Telephones: 4,620 (1991 est.)
Telephone system:
domestic: domestic telephone service is very poor with very few
telephones in use
international: international telephone and telegraph service is by
landline through India; a satellite earth station was planned (1990)
Radio broadcast stations: AM 0, FM 1, shortwave 1 (1998)
Radios: 23,000 (1989 est.)
Television broadcast stations: 0 (1997)
Televisions: 200 (1985 est.)
Transportation
Railways: 0 km
Highways: total: 3,285 km paved: 1,994 km unpaved: 1,291 km (1996 est.)
Ports and harbors: none
Airports: 2 (1998 est.)
Airports—with paved runways:
total: 1
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (1998 est.)
Airports—with unpaved runways:
total: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1998 est.)
Military
Military branches: Royal Bhutan Army, Palace Guard, Militia,
Royal Police Force
Military manpower—military age: 18 years of age
Military manpower—availability:
males age 15–49: 477,944 (1999 est.)
Military manpower—fit for military service:
males age 15–49: 254,992 (1999 est.)
Military manpower—reaching military age annually:
males: 19,424 (1999 est.)
Military expenditures—dollar figure: $NA
Military expenditures—percent of GDP: NA%
Transnational Issues
Disputes—international: with Nepal over 91,000 Bhutanese refugees in Nepal
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@Bolivia———
Introduction
Background: Bolivia broke away from Spanish rule in 1825. Its subsequent history has been marked by a seemingly endless series of coups, counter-coups, and abrupt changes in leaders and policies. Comparatively democratic civilian rule was established in the 1980s, but the leaders have faced difficult problems of deep-seated poverty, social unrest, strikes, and drug dealing. Current issues include encouraging and negotiating the terms for foreign investment; strengthening the educational system; continuing the privatization program; pursuing judicial reform and an anti-corruption campaign.
Geography
Location: Central South America, southwest of Brazil
Geographic coordinates: 17 00 S, 65 00 W
Map references: South America
Area:
total: 1,098,580 sq km
land: 1,084,390 sq km
water: 14,190 sq km
Area—comparative: slightly less than three times the size of
Montana
Land boundaries:
total: 6,743 km
border countries: Argentina 832 km, Brazil 3,400 km, Chile 861 km,
Paraguay 750 km, Peru 900 km
Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
Climate: varies with altitude; humid and tropical to cold and
semiarid
Terrain: rugged Andes Mountains with a highland plateau
(Altiplano), hills, lowland plains of the Amazon Basin
Elevation extremes:
lowest point: Rio Paraguay 90 m
highest point: Nevado Sajama 6,542 m
Natural resources: tin, natural gas, petroleum, zinc, tungsten,
antimony, silver, iron, lead, gold, timber
Land use:
arable land: 2%
permanent crops: 0%
permanent pastures: 24%
forests and woodland: 53%
other: 21% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: 1,750 sq km (1993 est.)
Natural hazards: cold, thin air of high plateau is obstacle to efficient fuel combustion, as well as to physical activity by those unaccustomed to it from birth; flooding in the northeast (March-April)
Environment—current issues: the clearing of land for agricultural purposes and the international demand for tropical timber are contributing to deforestation; soil erosion from overgrazing and poor cultivation methods (including slash-and-burn agriculture); desertification; loss of biodiversity; industrial pollution of water supplies used for drinking and irrigation
Environment—international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94 signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection
Geography—note: landlocked; shares control of Lago Titicaca, world's highest navigable lake (elevation 3,805 m), with Peru
People
Population: 7,982,850 (July 1999 est.)
Age structure:
0–14 years: 39% (male 1,573,391; female 1,540,123)
15–64 years: 56% (male 2,199,077; female 2,307,490)
65 years and over: 5% (male 164,213; female 198,556) (1999 est.)
Population growth rate: 1.96% (1999 est.)
Birth rate: 30.72 births/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Death rate: 9.61 deaths/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Net migration rate: −1.5 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Sex ratio:
at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
15–64 years: 0.95 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.83 male(s)/female
total population: 0.97 male(s)/female (1999 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 62.02 deaths/1,000 live births (1999 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: total population: 61.43 years male: 58.51 years female: 64.51 years (1999 est.)
Total fertility rate: 3.93 children born/woman (1999 est.)
Nationality: noun: Bolivian(s) adjective: Bolivian
Ethnic groups: Quechua 30%, Aymara 25%, mestizo (mixed white and
Amerindian ancestry) 30%, white 15%
Religions: Roman Catholic 95%, Protestant (Evangelical Methodist)
Languages: Spanish (official), Quechua (official), Aymara
(official)
Literacy:
definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 83.1%
male: 90.5%
female: 76% (1995 est.)
Government
Country name:
conventional long form: Republic of Bolivia
conventional short form: Bolivia
local long form: Republica de Bolivia
local short form: Bolivia
Data code: BL
Government type: republic
Capital: La Paz (seat of government); Sucre (legal capital and seat of judiciary)
Administrative divisions: 9 departments (departamentos, singular—departamento); Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, Beni, La Paz, Oruro, Pando, Potosi, Santa Cruz, Tarija
Independence: 6 August 1825 (from Spain)
National holiday: Independence Day, 6 August (1825)
Constitution: 2 February 1967; revised in August 1994
Legal system: based on Spanish law and Napoleonic Code; has not
accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Suffrage: 18 years of age, universal and compulsory (married); 21
years of age, universal and compulsory (single)
Executive branch:
chief of state: President Hugo BANZER Suarez (since 6 August 1997);
Vice President Jorge Fernando QUIROGA Ramirez (since 6 August 1997);
note—the president is both the chief of state and head of government
head of government: President Hugo BANZER Suarez (since 6 August
1997); Vice President Jorge Fernando QUIROGA Ramirez (since 6 August
1997); note—the president is both the chief of state and head of
government
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president from a panel of
candidates proposed by the Senate
elections: president and vice president elected on the same ticket
by popular vote for five-year terms; election last held 1 June 1997
(next to be held June 2002)
election results: Hugo BANZER Suarez elected president; percent of
vote—Hugo BANZER Suarez (ADN) 22%; Jaime PAZ Zamora (MIR) 17%, Juan
Carlos DURAN (MNR) 18%, Ivo KULJIS (UCS) 16%, Remedios LOZA
(CONDEPA) 17%; no candidate received a majority of the popular vote;
Hugo BANZER Suarez won a congressional runoff election on 5 August
1997 after forming a "megacoalition" with MIR, UCS, CONDEPA, NFR and
PDC
Legislative branch: bicameral National Congress or Congreso
Nacional consists of Chamber of Senators or Camara de Senadores (27
seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve
five-year terms) and Chamber of Deputies or Camara de Diputados (130
seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve
five-year terms)
elections: Chamber of Senators and Chamber of Deputies—last held 1
June 1997 (next to be held June 2002)
election results: Chamber of Senators—percent of vote by party—NA;
seats by party—ADN 11, MIR 7, MNR 4, CONDEPA 3, UCS 2; Chamber of
Deputies—percent of vote by party—NA; seats by party—ADN 32, MNR 26,
MIR 23, UCS 21, CONDEPA 19, MBL 5, IU 4
Judicial branch: Supreme Court (Corte Suprema), judges appointed
for a 10-year term by National Congress
Political parties and leaders:
Center-Left Parties: Movement of the Revolutionary Left or MIR
SANCHEZ DE LOZADA]
FERNANDEZ, Hugo VILLEGAS]
Indigenous Parties: Tupac Katari Revolutionary Liberation Movement
International organization participation: CAN, ECLAC, FAO, G-11,
G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF,
IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO (correspondent), ITU, LAES,
LAIA, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO,
UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
Diplomatic representation in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador Marcelo PEREZ Monasterios
chancery: 3014 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
consulate(s) general: Los Angeles, Miami, New York, and San Francisco
Diplomatic representation from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador Donna Jean HRINAK
embassy: Avenida Arce 2780, San Jorge, La Paz
mailing address: P. O. Box 425, La Paz; APO AA 34032
Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of red (top),
yellow, and green with the coat of arms centered on the yellow band;
similar to the flag of Ghana, which has a large black five-pointed
star centered in the yellow band
Economy
Economy—overview: With its long history of semifeudal social controls, dependence on mineral exports, and bouts of hyperinflation, Bolivia has remained one of the poorest and least developed Latin American countries. However, Bolivia has experienced generally improving economic conditions since the PAZ Estenssoro administration (1985–89) introduced market-oriented policies which reduced inflation from 11,700% in 1985 to about 20% in 1988. PAZ Estenssoro was followed as president by Jaime PAZ Zamora (1989–93) who continued the free-market policies of his predecessor, despite opposition from his own party and from Bolivia's once powerful labor movement. President SANCHEZ DE LOZADA (1993–1997) vowed to advance the market-oriented economic reforms he helped launch as PAZ Estenssoro's planning minister. His successes included the signing of a free trade agreement with Mexico and the Southern Cone Common Market (Mercosur) as well as the privatization of the state airline, telephone company, railroad, electric power company, and oil company. Hugo BANZER Suarez has tried to further improve the country's investment climate with an anticorruption campaign. With the scheduled completion of a $2 billion natural gas pipeline to Brazil in 1999, Bolivia hopes to become an energy hub in the region.
GDP: purchasing power parity—$23.4 billion (1998 est.)
GDP—real growth rate: 4.7% (1998 est.)
GDP—per capita: purchasing power parity?$3,000 (1998 est.)
GDP—composition by sector: agriculture: 17% industry: 26% services: 57% (1995 est.)
Population below poverty line: 66%
Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 2.3% highest 10%: 31.7% (1990)
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 4.4% (1998 est.)
Labor force: 2.5 million
Labor force—by occupation: agriculture NA%, services and utilities NA%, manufacturing, mining and construction NA%
Unemployment rate: 11.4% (1997) with widespread underemployment
Budget:
revenues: $2.7 billion
expenditures: $2.7 billion (1998)
Industries: mining, smelting, petroleum, food and beverages,
tobacco, handicrafts, clothing
Industrial production growth rate: 4% (1995 est.)
Electricity—production: 2.95 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity—production by source: fossil fuel: 40.68% hydro: 59.32% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1996)
Electricity—consumption: 2.948 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity—exports: 2 million kWh (1996)
Electricity—imports: 0 kWh (1996)
Agriculture—products: soybeans, coffee, coca, cotton, corn, sugarcane, rice, potatoes; timber
Exports: $1.1 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
Exports—commodities: metals 34%, natural gas 9.4%, soybeans 8.4%,
jewelry 11%, wood 6.9%
Exports—partners: US 22%, UK 9.3%, Colombia 8.7%, Peru 7.4%,
Argentina 7.2%
Imports: $1.7 billion (c.i.f. 1998)
Imports—commodities: capital goods 48%, chemicals 11%, petroleum 5%, food 5% (1993 est.)
Imports—partners: US 20%, Japan 13%, Brazil 12, Chile 7.5% (1996)
Debt—external: $4.1 billion (1998)
Economic aid—recipient: $588 million (1997)
Currency: 1 boliviano ($B) = 100 centavos
Exchange rates: bolivianos ($B) per US$1—5.6491 (January 1999), 5.5101 (1998), 5.2543 (1997), 5.0746 (1996), 4.8003 (1995), 4.6205 (1994)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications
Telephones: 144,300 (1987 est.)
Telephone system: new subscribers face bureaucratic difficulties; most telephones are concentrated in La Paz and other cities domestic: microwave radio relay system being expanded international: satellite earth station—1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
Radio broadcast stations: AM 177, FM 68, shortwave 112 (1998)
Radios: NA
Television broadcast stations: 48 (1997)
Televisions: 500,000 (1993 est.)
Transportation
Railways:
total: 3,691 km (single track)
narrow gauge: 3,652 km 1.000-m gauge; 39 km 0.760-m gauge (13 km
electrified) (1995)
Highways:
total: 52,216 km
paved: 2,872 km (including 27 km of expressways)
unpaved: 49,344 km (1995 est.)
Waterways: 10,000 km of commercially navigable waterways
Pipelines: crude oil 1,800 km; petroleum products 580 km; natural gas 1,495 km
Ports and harbors: none; however, Bolivia has free port
privileges in the maritime ports of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and
Paraguay
Merchant marine:
total: 6 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 34,948 GRT/58,472 DWT
ships by type: bulk 1, cargo 5 (1998 est.)
Airports: 1,130 (1998 est.)
Airports—with paved runways:
total: 12
over 3,047 m: 4
2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
1,524 to 2,437 m: 4
914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1998 est.)
Airports—with unpaved runways:
total: 1,118
2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
1,524 to 2,437 m: 70
914 to 1,523 m: 224
under 914 m: 821 (1998 est.)
Military
Military branches: Army (Ejercito Boliviano), Navy (Fuerza Naval
Boliviana, includes Marines), Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Boliviana),
National Police Force (Policia Nacional de Bolivia)
Military manpower—military age: 19 years of age
Military manpower—availability:
males age 15–49: 1,908,454 (1999 est.)
Military manpower—fit for military service:
males age 15–49: 1,241,311 (1999 est.)
Military manpower—reaching military age annually:
males: 84,481 (1999 est.)
Military expenditures—dollar figure: $154 million (1998)
Military expenditures—percent of GDP: 1.8% (1998)
Transnational Issues
Disputes—international: has wanted a sovereign corridor to the South Pacific Ocean since the Atacama area was lost to Chile in 1884; dispute with Chile over Rio Lauca water rights
Illicit drugs: world's third-largest cultivator of coca (after Peru and Colombia) with an estimated 46,900 hectares under cultivation in 1997, a 2.5% decrease in overall cultivation of coca from 1996 levels; Bolivia, however, is the second-largest producer of coca leaf; even so, farmer abandonment and voluntary and forced eradication programs resulted in leaf production dropping from 75,100 metric tons in 1996 to 73,000 tons in 1997, a 3% decrease from 1996; government considers all but 12,000 hectares illicit; intermediate coca products and cocaine exported to or through Colombia, Brazil, Argentina, and Chile to the US and other international drug markets; alternative crop program aims to reduce illicit coca cultivation
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@Bosnia and Herzegovina———————————
Introduction
Background: On 21 November 1995, in Dayton, Ohio, the former Yugoslavia's three warring parties signed a peace agreement that brought to a halt over three years of interethnic civil strife in Bosnia and Herzegovina (the final agreement was signed in Paris on 14 December 1995). The Dayton Agreement, signed then by Bosnian President IZETBEGOVIC, Croatian President TUDJMAN, and Serbian President MILOSEVIC, divides Bosnia and Herzegovina roughly equally between the Muslim/Croat Federation and the Republika Srpska while maintaining Bosnia's currently recognized borders. In 1995–96, a NATO-led international peacekeeping force (IFOR) of 60,000 troops served in Bosnia to implement and monitor the military aspects of the agreement. IFOR was succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led Stabilization Force (SFOR) whose mission is to deter renewed hostilities. SFOR remains in place. A High Representative appointed by the UN Security Council is responsible for civilian implementation of the accord, including monitoring implementation, facilitating any difficulties arising in connection with civilian implementation, and coordinating activities of the civilian organizations and agencies in Bosnia. The Bosnian conflict began in the spring of 1992 when the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina held a referendum on independence and the Bosnian Serbs—supported by neighboring Serbia—responded with armed resistance aimed at partitioning the republic along ethnic lines and joining Serb-held areas to form a "greater Serbia." In March 1994, Bosnia's Muslims and Croats reduced the number of warring factions from three to two by signing an agreement in Washington creating their joint Muslim/Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Federation, formed by the Muslims and Croats in March 1994, is one of two entities (the other being the Bosnian Serb-led Republika Srpska) that comprise Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Geography
Location: Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea and
Croatia
Geographic coordinates: 44 00 N, 18 00 E
Map references: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Europe
Area:
total: 51,233 sq km
land: 51,233 sq km
water: 0 sq km
Area—comparative: slightly smaller than West Virginia
Land boundaries:
total: 1,459 km
border countries: Croatia 932 km, Serbia and Montenegro 527 km (312
km with Serbia, 215 km with Montenegro)
Coastline: 20 km
Maritime claims: NA
Climate: hot summers and cold winters; areas of high elevation have short, cool summers and long, severe winters; mild, rainy winters along coast
Terrain: mountains and valleys
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Adriatic Sea 0 m highest point: Maglic 2,386 m
Natural resources: coal, iron, bauxite, manganese, forests,
copper, chromium, lead, zinc
Land use:
arable land: 14%
permanent crops: 5%
permanent pastures: 20%
forests and woodland: 39%
other: 22% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: 20 sq km (1993 est.)
Natural hazards: frequent and destructive earthquakes
Environment—current issues: air pollution from metallurgical
plants; sites for disposing of urban waste are limited; widespread
casualties, water shortages, and destruction of infrastructure
because of the 1992–95 civil strife
Environment—international agreements:
party to: Air Pollution, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life
Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Geography—note: within Bosnia and Herzegovina's recognized borders, the country is divided into a joint Muslim/Croat Federation (about 51% of the territory) and the Bosnian Serb-led Republika Herzegovina is contiguous to Croatia and traditionally has been settled by an ethnic Croat majority
People
Population: 3,482,495 (July 1999 est.)
note: all data dealing with population is subject to considerable
error because of the dislocations caused by military action and
ethnic cleansing
Age structure:
0–14 years: 17% (male 310,430; female 294,298)
15–64 years: 71% (male 1,221,791; female 1,240,097)
65 years and over: 12% (male 166,876; female 249,003) (1999 est.)
Population growth rate: 3.2% (1999 est.)
Birth rate: 9.36 births/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Death rate: 10.81 deaths/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Net migration rate: 33.42 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Sex ratio:
at birth: 1.07 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
15–64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.67 male(s)/female
total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (1999 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 24.52 deaths/1,000 live births (1999 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: total population: 66.98 years male: 62.55 years female: 71.71 years (1999 est.)
Total fertility rate: 1.21 children born/woman (1999 est.)
Nationality: noun: Bosnian(s), Herzegovinian(s) adjective: Bosnian, Herzegovinian
Ethnic groups: Serb 40%, Muslim 38%, Croat 22% (est.); note—the
Croats claim they now make up only 17% of the total population
Religions: Muslim 40%, Orthodox 31%, Catholic 15%, Protestant 4%,
other 10%
Languages: Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian
Literacy: NA
Government
Country name:
conventional long form: none
conventional short form: Bosnia and Herzegovina
local long form: none
local short form: Bosna i Hercegovina
Data code: BK
Government type: emerging democracy
Capital: Sarajevo
Administrative divisions: there are two first-order
administrative divisions—the Muslim/Croat Federation of Bosnia and
Herzegovina (Federacija Bosna i Hercegovina) and the Bosnian
Serb-led Republika Srpska; note—the status of Brcko in north eastern
Bosnia is to be determined by arbitration
Independence: NA April 1992 (from Yugoslavia)
National holiday: Republika Srpska—"Republic Day," 9 January;
Independence Day, 1 March; Federation of Bosnia and
Herzegovina—"Republic Day," 25 November
Constitution: the Dayton Agreement, signed 14 December 1995,
included a new constitution now in force
Legal system: based on civil law system
Suffrage: 16 years of age, if employed; 18 years of age, universal
Executive branch:
chief of state: Chairman of the Presidency Zivko RADISIC (since 13
October 1998—Serb); other members of the three-member rotating
(every 8 months) presidency: Ante JELAVIC (since NA September
1998—Croat) and Alija IZETBEGOVIC (since 14 March 1996—Muslim)
head of government: Cochairman of the Council of Ministers Haris
SILAJDZIC (since NA January 1997); Cochairman of the Council of
Ministers Suetozar MIHAJLOVIC (since 3 February 1999)
cabinet: Council of Ministers nominated by the council chairmen
note: President of the Muslim/Croat Federation of Bosnia and
Herzegovina: Ivo ANDRIC-LUZANIC (since 1 January 1999); Vice
President is Ejup GANIC; note—president and vice president rotate
every 3 months; President of the Republika Srpska: Nikola POPLASEN
(since 29 October 1998)
elections: the three-person presidency members (one Muslim, one
Croat, one Serb) are elected by popular vote for a four-year term;
the president with the most votes becomes the chairman unless he was
the incumbent chairman at the time of the election; election last
held 12–13 September 1998 (next to be held September 2002); the
cochairmen of the Council of Ministers are appointed by the
presidency
election results: percent of vote—Zivko RADISIC with 52% of the Serb
vote was elected chairman of the collective presidency for the first
8 months; Ante JELAVIC with 52% of the Croat vote will follow
RADISIC in the rotation; Alija IZEBEGOVIC with 87% of the Muslim
vote won the highest number of votes in the election but was
ineligible to serve consecutive terms as chairman
Legislative branch: bicameral Parliamentary Assembly or Skupstina
consists of the National House of Representatives or Vijece Opcina
(42 seats—14 Serb, 14 Croat, and 14 Muslim; members elected by
popular vote to serve two-year terms) and the House of Peoples or
Vijece Gradanstvo (15 seats—5 Muslim, 5 Croat, 5 Serb; members
elected by the Muslim/Croat Federation's House of Representatives
and the Republika Srpska's National Assembly to serve two-year terms)
elections: National House of Representatives—elections last held
12–13 September 1998 (next to be held in the fall 2000); House of
Peoples—last held NA (next to be held NA)
election results: National House of Representatives—percent of vote
by party/coalition—NA; seats by party/coalition—KCD 17, HDZ-BiH 6,
SDP 4, Sloga 4, SDS 4, SDBIH 2, SRS-RS 2, DNZ 1, NHI 1, RSRS 1;
House of Peoples—percent of vote by party/coalition—NA; seats by
party/coalition—NA
note: the Muslim/Croat Federation has a House of Representatives
(140 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve NA year terms);
elections last held NA (next to be held NA); percent of vote by
party—NA; seats by party/coalition—KCD 68, HDZ-BiH 28, SDP 19, SDBIH
6, NHI 4, DNZ 3, DSP 2, BPS 2, HSP 2, SPRS 2, BSP 1, KC 1, BOSS 1,
HSS 1; the Republika Srpska has a National Assembly (83 seats;
members elected by popular vote to serve NA year terms); elections
last held NA (next to be held NA); percent of vote by party—NA;
seats by party/coalition—SDS 19, KCD 15, SNS 12, SRS-RS 11, SPRS 10,
SNSD 6, RSRS 3, SKRS 2, SDP 2, KKO 1, HDZ-BiH 1, NHI 1
Judicial branch: Constitutional Court, consists of nine members:
four members are selected by the Muslim/Croat Federation's House of
Representatives, two members by the Republika Srpska National
Assembly, and three non-Bosnian members by the president of the
European Court of Human Rights
Political parties and leaders: Bosnian Party of Rights or BSP
IZETBEGOVIC; includes SDA, SBH, GDS, LS]; Croatian Democratic Union
BIH or SDP (formerly the Democratic Party of Socialists or DSS)
note: note—SDP and SDBIH announced a merger in 1999
Political pressure groups and leaders: NA
International organization participation: CE (guest), CEI, EBRD,
ECE, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO,
Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM (guest), OAS
(observer), OIC (observer), OPCW, OSCE, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO,
UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO
Diplomatic representation in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador Dragan BOZANIC
chancery: 2109 E Street NW, Washington, DC 20037
consulate(s) general: New York
Diplomatic representation from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador Richard D. KAUZLARICH
embassy: Alipasina 43, 71000 Sarajevo
mailing address: use street address
Flag description: a wide medium blue vertical band on the fly side with a yellow isosceles triangle abutting the band and the top of the flag; the remainder of the flag is medium blue with seven full five-pointed white stars and two half stars top and bottom along the hypotenuse of the triangle
Government—note: Until declaring independence in spring 1992, Bosnia and Herzegovina existed as a republic in the former Yugoslavia. Bosnia was partitioned by fighting during 1992–95 and governed by competing ethnic factions. Bosnia's current governing structures were created by the Dayton Agreement, the 1995 peace agreement which was officially signed in Paris on 14 December 1995 by then Bosnian President IZETBEGOVIC, Croatian President TUDJMAN, and then Serbian President MILOSEVIC. This agreement retained Bosnia's exterior border and created a joint multi-ethnic and democratic government. This national government—based on proportional representation similar to that which existed in the former socialist regime—is charged with conducting foreign, economic, and fiscal policy. The Dayton Agreement also recognized a second tier of government, comprised of two entities—a joint Muslim/Croat Federation and the Bosnian Serb Republika Srpska (RS)—each presiding over roughly one-half the territory. The Federation and RS governments are charged with overseeing internal functions.
Economy
Economy—overview: Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked next to The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia as the poorest republic in the old Yugoslav federation. Although agriculture has been almost all in private hands, farms have been small and inefficient, and the republic traditionally has been a net importer of food. Industry has been greatly overstaffed, one reflection of the rigidities of communist central planning and management. TITO had pushed the development of military industries in the republic with the result that Bosnia hosted a large share of Yugoslavia's defense plants. The bitter interethnic warfare in Bosnia caused production to plummet by 80% from 1990 to 1995, unemployment to soar, and human misery to multiply. With an uneasy peace in place, output has recovered in 1996–98 at high percentage rates on a low base, but remains far below the 1990 level. Key achievements in 1998 included approval of privatization legislation, the introduction of a national currency—the convertible mark, agreement with the Paris Club to reschedule official debt, and the conclusion of a Standby Agreement with the IMF. Economic data are of limited use because, although both entities issue figures, national-level statistics are not available. Moreover, official data do not capture the large share of activity that occurs on the black market. The country receives substantial amounts of reconstruction assistance and humanitarian aid from the international community. Wide regional differences in war damage and access to the outside world have resulted in substantial variations in living conditions among local areas and individual families. In 1999, Bosnia's major goals are to implement privatization and make progress in fiscal reform and management. In addition, Bosnia will have to prepare for an era of declining assistance from the international community.
GDP: purchasing power parity—$5.8 billion (1998 est.)
GDP—real growth rate: 30% (1998 est.)
GDP—per capita: purchasing power parity?$1,720 (1998 est.)
GDP—composition by sector: agriculture: 19% industry: 23% services: 58% (1996 est.)
Population below poverty line: NA%
Household income or consumption by percentage share:
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate (consumer prices): NA%
Labor force: 1,026,254
Labor force—by occupation: NA%
Unemployment rate: 40%-50% (1996 est.)
Budget: revenues: $NA expenditures: $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
Industries: steel, coal, iron ore, lead, zinc, manganese, bauxite, vehicle assembly, textiles, tobacco products, wooden furniture, tank and aircraft assembly, domestic appliances, oil refining (much of capacity damaged or shut down) (1995)
Industrial production growth rate: 35% (1998 est.)
Electricity—production: 2.3 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity—production by source: fossil fuel: 34.78% hydro: 65.22% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1996)
Electricity—consumption: 2.504 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity—exports: 182 million kWh (1996)
Electricity—imports: 386 million kWh (1996)
Agriculture—products: wheat, corn, fruits, vegetables; livestock
Exports: $152 million (1995 est.)
Exports—commodities: NA
Exports—partners: NA
Imports: $1.1 billion (1995 est.)
Imports—commodities: NA
Imports—partners: NA
Debt—external: $3.5 billion (yearend 1995 est.)
Economic aid—recipient: $1.2 billion (1997 pledged)
Currency: 1 convertible marka (KM) = 100 convertible pfenniga
Exchange rates: NA
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications
Telephones: 727,000
Telephone system: telephone and telegraph network is in need of
modernization and expansion; many urban areas are below average when
compared with services in other former Yugoslav republics
domestic: NA
international: no satellite earth stations
Radio broadcast stations: AM 8, FM 16, shortwave 1 (1998)
Radios: 840,000
Television broadcast stations: 21 (1997)
Televisions: 1,012,094
Transportation
Railways:
total: 1,021 km (electrified 795 km; operating as diesel or steam
until grids are repaired)
standard gauge: 1,021 km 1.435-m gauge (1995); note—some segments
still need repair and/or reconstruction
Highways:
total: 21,846 km
paved: 11,425 km
unpaved: 10,421 km (1996 est.)
note: roads need maintenance and repair
Waterways: NA km; large sections of Sava blocked by downed
bridges, silt, and debris
Pipelines: crude oil 174 km; natural gas 90 km (1992);
note—pipelines now disrupted
Ports and harbors: Bosanska Gradiska, Bosanski Brod, Bosanski
Samac, and Brcko (all inland waterway ports on the Sava none of
which are fully operational), Orasje
Merchant marine: none
Airports: 25 (1998 est.)
Airports—with paved runways: total: 9 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 2 (1998 est.)
Airports—with unpaved runways: total: 16 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 7 under 914 m: 8 (1998 est.)
Heliports: 3 (1998 est.)
Military
Military branches: Federation Army or VF (composed of both Croatian and Bosnian Muslim elements), Army of the Serb Republic (composed of Bosnian Serb elements); note—within both of these forces air and air defense are subordinate commands
Military manpower—military age: 19 years of age
Military manpower—availability:
males age 15–49: 951,541 (1999 est.)
Military manpower—fit for military service:
males age 15–49: 764,992 (1999 est.)
Military manpower—reaching military age annually:
males: 28,438 (1999 est.)
Military expenditures—dollar figure: $NA
Military expenditures—percent of GDP: NA%
Transnational Issues
Disputes—international: disputes with Serbia over Serbian
populated areas
Illicit drugs: minor transit point for marijuana and opiate
trafficking routes to Western Europe
======================================================================
@Botswana————
Geography
Location: Southern Africa, north of South Africa
Geographic coordinates: 22 00 S, 24 00 E
Map references: Africa
Area:
total: 600,370 sq km
land: 585,370 sq km
water: 15,000 sq km
Area—comparative: slightly smaller than Texas
Land boundaries:
total: 4,013 km
border countries: Namibia 1,360 km, South Africa 1,840 km, Zimbabwe
813 km
Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
Climate: semiarid; warm winters and hot summers
Terrain: predominantly flat to gently rolling tableland; Kalahari
Desert in southwest
Elevation extremes:
lowest point: junction of the Limpopo and Shashe Rivers 513 m
highest point: Tsodilo Hills 1,489 m
Natural resources: diamonds, copper, nickel, salt, soda ash,
potash, coal, iron ore, silver
Land use:
arable land: 1%
permanent crops: 0%
permanent pastures: 46%
forests and woodland: 47%
other: 6% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: 20 sq km (1993 est.)
Natural hazards: periodic droughts; seasonal August winds blow from the west, carrying sand and dust across the country, which can obscure visibility
Environment—current issues: overgrazing; desertification; limited
fresh water resources
Environment—international agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered
Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone
Layer Protection
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Geography—note: landlocked; population concentrated in eastern
part of the country
People
Population: 1,464,167 (July 1999 est.)
Age structure:
0–14 years: 42% (male 310,578; female 303,495)
15–64 years: 54% (male 379,836; female 416,073)
65 years and over: 4% (male 20,224; female 33,961) (1999 est.)
Population growth rate: 1.05% (1999 est.)
Birth rate: 31.46 births/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Death rate: 21 deaths/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Sex ratio:
at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
15–64 years: 0.91 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.6 male(s)/female
total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (1999 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 59.08 deaths/1,000 live births (1999 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: total population: 39.89 years male: 39.42 years female: 40.37 years (1999 est.)
Total fertility rate: 3.91 children born/woman (1999 est.)
Nationality:
noun: Motswana (singular), Batswana (plural)
adjective: Motswana (singular), Batswana (plural)
Ethnic groups: Batswana 95%, Kalanga, Basarwa, and Kgalagadi 4%,
white 1%
Religions: indigenous beliefs 50%, Christian 50%
Languages: English (official), Setswana
Literacy:
definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 69.8%
male: 80.5%
female: 59.9% (1995 est.)
Government
Country name:
conventional long form: Republic of Botswana
conventional short form: Botswana
former: Bechuanaland
Data code: BC
Government type: parliamentary republic
Capital: Gaborone
Administrative divisions: 10 districts and four town councils*;
Central, Chobe, Francistown*, Gaborone*, Ghanzi, Kgalagadi,
Kgatleng, Kweneng, Lobatse*, Ngamiland, North-East, Selebi-Pikwe*,
South-East, Southern
Independence: 30 September 1966 (from UK)
National holiday: Independence Day, 30 September (1966)
Constitution: March 1965, effective 30 September 1966
Legal system: based on Roman-Dutch law and local customary law; judicial review limited to matters of interpretation; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive branch:
chief of state: President Festus MOGAE (since 1 April 1998) and Vice
President Seretse Ian KHAMA (since NA April 1998); note—the
president is both the chief of state and head of government
head of government: President Festus MOGAE (since 1 April 1998) and
Vice President Seretse Ian KHAMA (since NA April 1998); note—the
president is both the chief of state and head of government
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president
elections: president elected by the National Assembly for a
five-year term; election last held 15 October 1994 (next to be held
NA October 1999); vice president appointed by the president
election results: Sir Ketumile MASIRE elected president; percent of
National Assembly vote—NA
note: President MASIRE resigned on 31 March 1998; Vice President
MOGAE assumed the presidency pending elections to be held in 1999;
on 2 April 1998, Festus MOGAE, then president, designated Seretse
Ian KHAMA to be vice president
