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Chapter Two

THE DRESS OF THE MANCHU CONSORTS 1644–1911

Life in the Forbidden City

In order to maintain the “purity” of the Qing dynasty line, emperors chose their wives from among daughters of eminent Manchu families. For reasons of political alliance, they were sometimes selected from important Mongol families, but were never from among the Chinese. Qing emperors continued the Ming system of polygamy to produce many offspring, thus ensuring the succession.

In addition to wives, the emperors had many consorts, recruited every three years from among the important military families of the Eight Banners to become Excellent Women (xiu nu). Parents could be punished if they did not register their daughters’ names for selection. If chosen, the girls, aged between twelve and fifteen, would live inside the Forbidden City until they were twenty-five when they were “retired” and were free to leave if they so wished.

Another group of women in the palace were the daughters of the imperial bondservants who took care of the personal duties of the emperor and his family. At whim, the emperor could also select a girl from this group to be his concubine or even his next wife (Fig. 50). Marriage between bannermen and bondservants was forbidden, but sometimes bondservant’s daughters were brought into the palace as maidservants, and could be promoted into the imperial harem. For instance, Empress Xiaogong was the daughter of a bondservant, who became a maidservant, and went on to gain the favor of the Kangxi Emperor as a third-rank imperial consort. She bore him three sons and three daughters, and eventually became Empress Dowager once her son ascended the throne as the Yongzheng Emperor.

The emperor’s consorts fell into eight ranks: the empress was pre-eminent, followed by the huang guifei or first-rank imperial consort, and on down to the seventh rank. Manchu women held no official role in the government, but an empress dowager could act as regent during a ruler’s minority, and held even more power than the reigning emperor himself on occasion, due to the importance attached to filial piety. For example, the Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908), co-regent for her son and then for her nephew, virtually controlled the government of China between 1860 and 1908. Other women’s appearances in public were limited to occasions when they accompanied their husband, though there were some ceremonial events when women from the imperial family would officiate in their own right.

Court Robes

Little is known about early imperial female robes before 1759 when court and official dress became standardized. Following standardization, women’s clothing, like that for men, was separated into official and non-official, and subdivided further according to degree of formality. Rules for clothing also followed the seasons, and changes were made from silk gauze in summer, through to silk and satin, to padded or fur-lined for winter.

Official formal dress worn by women at court comprised a full-length garment called a chao pao, with a square-cut lapel opening and projecting shoulder epaulettes, the latter thought to be a pre-Qing costume feature for protecting the wearer’s arms from bad weather. As with men’s robes, the ground color and arrangement of dragons indicated rank. Over the top of the chao pao women wore a full-length sleeveless vest called a chao gua, which opened down the center; its antecedent was a sleeveless vest of trapezoidal shape worn by the Ming empresses, although the deeply cut armholes and sloping shoulder seams appear to be derived from an animal skin construction. Under the chao pao, a skirt made from a single length of silk with eighteen pleats fell from a plain waistband. The skirt was embroidered with small roundels along the hem, filled with the shou character, flowers, and dragons. A hat and a large flaring collar (pi ling) completed the outfit. Whereas the colors of the women’s robes matched those of their husbands, the daughters of the emperor and lower-ranking consorts wore a greenish yellow (xiang se) robe.

The various types of seasonal chao pao ranged from thick, heavy winter costumes to light summery ones. The first type of winter chao pao comprised a long gown with projecting epaulets, embellished all over with front-facing and profile dragons, with wave motifs at the hem, but without the li shui diagonal stripes until almost the end of the dynasty. Bands of coiling dragons decorated the upper part of the long sleeves above the plain dark lower sleeves, which ended in horse-hoof cuffs. The robe was lined with white fur and edged with sable. The second style of winter court robe was very similar to the men’s chao pao, being made in two sections with a pleated skirt attached to a jacket similar in construction to the first style. A four-lobed yoke pattern of dragons extended over the chest, back, and shoulders, with a band of dragons above the seam of the top and skirt. Another band of dragons was placed on the lower part of the skirt. The third style was similar to the first, but with a split in the center of the skirt at the back, which was trimmed with black fox fur. Unlike the first two styles, this style was permissible for Manchu women other than those belonging to the imperial family (Fig. 51).

Fig. 49 First semiformal style five-clawed dragon robe in orange silk, embroidered in satin stitch with nine dragons couched in gold thread. Orange was regarded as an off-shade of imperial yellow and restricted to use by the emperor’s consorts of the second and third degree and the wives of the emperor’s sons. The fact that the lower dragons have not clasped the pearl suggests that the robe was made for an imperial daughter-in-law or consort, mid-19th c.

Fig. 50 Imperial princess wearing a court vest over a court robe, both edged in fur, with a flared collar, winter court hat, diadem, torque, three necklaces, and pointed kerchief.

Fig. 51 Woodblock printed page from the Regulations showing the back and front views of the third style winter court robe.

Fig. 52 Painting on silk from the Regulations showing the first style summer court robe in yellow, belonging to an empress or empress dowager.

Summer court robes were of two types. The first was made of two sections, like the second type of winter robe (Fig. 52). The second summer style was identical to the third kind of winter robe, but made of gauze or satin and edged with brocade (Fig. 55).

Three different styles of full-length, sleeveless chao gua court vests made of dark blue silk edged with brocade were worn over the chao pao. The first style was made in three sections: an upper part, a section from waist to knee, and a section from knee to hem (Fig. 53). Five horizontal bands embroidered with four- or five-clawed dragons and lucky symbols, depending on rank, encircled the vest. The second type of chao gua was similar to the second style of chao pao, with a sleeveless body part joined to a pleated skirt (Fig. 56). This is very rare and, like the first, was worn only by members of the imperial family. The third style, decorated with ascending dragons presented in profile as well as wave motifs and, later, li shui, was acceptable wear for women of all ranks (Fig. 54). Lower-ranking noblewomen and officials’ wives wore either the third style of winter chao pao or the second style of summer chao pao. This was worn with the third style of chao gua and the pi ling collar (Fig. 57).

Fig. 53 Wanrong, wife of the Xuantong Emperor (r. 1909–12), taken at the time of their marriage in 1922, wearing the first style court vest, court hat, flared collar, three court necklaces, together with the pointed kerchief attached to the button on her court vest, a diadem, torque, earrings, and hat finial with three phoenixes.

Fig. 54 Princess Su, whose husband gave his palace to the Christians during the Boxer siege, in the third style court vest, ca. 1900.

Fig. 55 Second style summer court robe with flared collar, 18th c.

Fig. 56 Painting on silk from the Regulations of the second style summer court vest for an imperial consort.

Accessories

An important accouterment of court dress worn by female members of the Imperial Household was the chao guan or court hat. At the beginning of the dynasty, different hats were worn in summer and winter, but by the reign of the Kangxi Emperor the winter style had been adopted for use throughout the year. The chao guan was similar in shape to the men’s winter hat, with a fur brim and a crown covered with red floss silk tassels, but it had an additional back flap shaped like an inverted gourd, made of fur. In summer, the hat brim and back flap were faced with black satin or velvet.

Seven elaborately ornamented gold phoenixes graced the crown of a first-rank imperial consort’s summer chao guan, while lesser imperial concubines wore five. At the back of the hat, a golden pheasant supporting three strings of pearls anchored by a lapis lazuli ornament hung down over the flap (Figs. 58, 59). The crowns of hats worn by princesses were covered with red floss silk and decorated with golden pheasants, while the hats of lower-ranking noblewomen had small jeweled plaques secured to the base of the crown just above the brim.

As ordained by the Regulations, the hat finials of the empress, empress dowager, and first rank imperial consort were composed of three tiers of golden phoenixes and pearls (see Fig. 59). Lesser-ranking imperial concubines were allowed to wear finials comprising two tiers of phoenixes and pearls. Lower-ranking noblewomen wore a simpler, smaller version of the man’s hat finial (Fig. 60).

Fig. 57 Woman’s large flaring collar worn on top of a court robe, with two dragons in profile on either side of a mountain, the background filled with clouds and lucky emblems. Men’s collars usually had five dragons.

Fig. 58 Painting on silk from the Regulations of a winter court hat belonging to an imperial noblewoman.

Fig. 59 Summer court hat of a first-rank imperial consort. The brim and back flap are in black velvet, with red floss silk fringing covering the crown, seven gold phoenix ornaments set with pearls placed around the crown, and three phoenixes on the finial.

Fig. 60 Noblewoman’s hat finial of brass with amber jewels. This would have been sewn to the hat through the tiny holes around the base, instead of being fixed with a long screw through the crown.

Fig. 61 Diadem of gold inlaid with lapis lazuli and pearls.

Fig. 62 Black satin headband for a Manchu nobleman’s wife decorated with four-clawed profile dragons couched in gold and silver thread, one on each side of a flaming pearl. On each of the pendants, which hung down the back, there is a long coiling dragon and a phoenix of a similar design.

The court hat rested on a diadem or coronet (jin yue), which encircled the forehead (Fig. 61). Diadems were also an indicator of rank and appear in the Regulations after the section on hats. The diadems of women in the imperial family were made of several sections of gold joined together and inlaid with precious stones such as lapis lazuli and pearls. Although not shown here, either five or three strings of pearls, depending on rank, hung down the back, anchored at the top and just above midway by two oval plaques.

On official occasions, lower-ranking women, ranging from the wives of dukes down to the wives of seventh-rank mandarins, wore a silk headband on the forehead in place of a diadem or coronet (Fig. 62). Composed of a band of black satin, it was decorated with semiprecious stones in the form of a dragon and phoenix chasing a flaming pearl. Two pendants embroidered in similar fashion hung down the back. Tiny loops at the top enabled the band to be hooked over a jeweled hairpin, which was pushed into the hair just under the back fastening of the headband.

Women from the imperial family and Manchu noblewomen had their ears pierced to accommodate three pairs of drop earrings (erh-shih) in each ear when wearing court dress.

A jeweled collar or torque was listed in the Regulations as an essential part of court dress for members of the imperial family and noblewomen (Fig. 63). Called a ling yue, it was made of gold or silver gilt inlaid with semiprecious stones such as pearls, coral, rubies, and lapis lazuli, the number of stones determining rank. Silk braids, the colors corresponding to those of the robes, hung down from the back opening, ending in drop pendants of matching semiprecious stones.

Another essential item of court dress for the ladies of the imperial family, noblewomen, and wives of high officials was the court necklace (chao zhu), which was similar in style to the one worn by their husbands but with the addition of two necklaces crossing from left shoulder to right underarm, and vice versa. When wearing the dragon robe on semiformal occasions, a single necklace was appropriate. Only the empress or empress dowager could wear a main necklace formed of Manchurian pearls, the other two being made of coral. Amber and coral necklaces were worn by lower-ranking consorts and princesses, while other members of the family were permitted to wear any type of semiprecious stone not restricted to the empress and empress dowager.

Another symbol of rank listed for women in the Regulations was the zai shui, a long pointed kerchief made of yellow, red, or blue silk and embroidered with auspicious emblems like the dragon and phoenix (Fig. 64). Suspended from a jeweled ring, it fastened to a center button on the court vest or to the side top button on the dragon robe. Silk cords with charms made from jade or other semi-precious stones hung from the jewel, with a jeweled bar approximately one-third the way down from the top.

Semiformal and Informal Attire

For semiformal official occasions and during festivals, the women within the imperial family wore the long pao, a side-fastening robe embroidered with nine five-clawed dragons, its long sleeves ending in horse-hoof cuffs, and in colors corresponding to rank. Unlike those worn by men, women’s dragon robes had no splits at the center back and front hem since women did not sit astride horses. Additional bands of dragons at the seams linking the upper and lower sleeves were, in theory, restricted to the empress and highest-ranking princesses, although in practice were adopted by all Manchu women.

Fig. 63 Torque made of gilt-bronze finely worked with a pair of dragon heads confronting a lapis lazuli “flaming pearl” forming the clasp, each set with a ruyi hook inset with turquoise, lapis lazuli, and coral plaques incised with scales, floral motifs, and butterflies, late Qing.

Fig. 64 Woodblock printed page from the Regulations showing the pointed kerchief designed for the empress, to be embroidered in green and other colors with the Abundant Harvest of the Five Grains pattern on a bright yellow ground. The same design was permitted to imperial consorts and consorts of princes, while the ones worn by princesses and noblewomen were plainer.

As with the formal court robe, there were three types of semi-formal dragon robes. The first, worn by all women, was completely covered with dragon motifs with a wave border along the hem, with the color and number of dragons indicating rank (Fig. 66; see also Fig. 49). Lower-ranking noblewomen and officials’ wives wore the mang pao, the four-clawed dragon robe in the same style. Later, in the nineteenth century, the sleeves of these robes degenerated, ending in wide horse-hoof cuffs. Although the use of the Twelve Imperial Symbols was, in theory, restricted to the emperor, he sometimes conferred the right to use them on others (Fig. 66).

The second style of long pao, decorated with nine dragon-filled roundels and a wave pattern hem, was officially the preserve of the empress (Fig. 67). However, some robes made later in the dynasty, with the degenerated sleeves and wide horse-hoof cuffs popular by this time, have this same roundel pattern and were worn by noble-women. The third type, officially worn only by the empress, was embellished with roundels but no wave pattern (Fig. 68).

The semiformal dress of the empresses and imperial consorts was not complete without a ji guan or festive hat. The ji guan resembled the emperor’s winter hat, having red silk tassels and a fur brim, while for summer the brim was faced with black satin. The hats of empresses, or those women at court given the right, were topped with a pearl. The hat was worn over a silk band with a jewel at the center, which replaced the gold diadem.

Lower-ranking noblewomen wore more elaborate hats, the crowns of which were covered with red or blue satin decorated with embroidery or semiprecious stones and topped with a red silk knot (Fig. 65). Two wide streamers, embroidered with dragons chasing the flaming pearl, were inserted through a horizontal slit in the brim and hung down the back to below the waist. Other designs on the streamers include the Eight Buddhist emblems. Two small bouquets of flowers were often tucked in the hat just above the ears.

For official informal occasions, dragon robes were made of plain-colored silk damask edged with bands of embroidered dragons at the tou jin or curved opening at the neck, and on the sleeves, although they were cut in the usual dragon style with horse-hoof cuffs (Fig. 69). Being relatively plain, these robes are quite scarce.

Fig. 65 Semiformal winter hat of a noblewoman, with a black sable fur brim (for summer, the brim would be made of black satin), the crown covered with red satin and embroidered in a design of bats and butterflies, a red silk cord knob at the apex, and two streamers decorated with couched gold dragons on blue satin chasing the flaming pearl and phoenixes.

Fig. 66 First semiformal style five-clawed summer dragon robe, embroidered in counted stitch on silk gauze with gold couched dragons and the Twelve Imperial Symbols, made for an imperial consort, ca. 1875. The wider sleeves are a feature of the latter part of the 19th c.

Fig. 67 Second semiformal style five-clawed dragon robe in turquoise satin and lined in yellow silk, with li shui at hem, made for a low-ranking imperial consort or imperial daughter-in-law, ca. 1800. Of the nine dragon roundels embroidered on the robe, the upper four contain front-facing dragons, the lower four, plus the one hidden on the inside flap, have dragons in profile.

Fig. 68 Third semiformal style five-clawed dragon robe, no li shui at hem, in apricot silk gauze with eight dragon roundels, the four upper ones with front-facing dragons, the four on the skirt with dragons in profile (none on the inside flap), mid-19th c. The robe’s color indicates it was probably made for the consort of the crown prince.

Fig. 69 Official informal robe for an imperial consort in turquoise, with embroidered facings and damask weave roundels.

Fig. 70 High-ranking ladies surcoat in kesi, with four facing dragon roundels on the upper body, and four profile dragon roundels on skirt, early 19th c.

In public, empresses, high-ranking consorts, and noblewomen were required to wear a long gua – a full-length, center-opening, wide-sleeved surcoat in blue-black satin or gauze with dragon roundels arranged over it – over their long pao or five-clawed dragon robe (Figs. 70, 71). They were of two types: the first had eight roundels of dragons displayed on the chest, back, shoulders, and front and back hem of the coat, together with the li shui pattern, similar to that on the second style of long pao (Fig. 73). The other style had eight roundels without the wave border, as in the third style of long pao. Several empresses in the nineteenth century added the first four of the Twelve Imperial Symbols to the upper four roundels.

Imperial princesses were expected to wear the upper four or two roundels on a plain surcoat or pu fu to match their husbands’ rank, although it seems they preferred to wear the long gua with li shui. Lower-ranking noblewomen were required to wear the surcoat with eight roundels of flower motifs surrounding the shou character, with or without li shui, as with dragon robes (Fig. 74).

Dragon jackets are not common (Fig. 72). They do not appear in the Regulations, but because of their similarity to dragon robes, with the dragons and li shui, they are clearly intended for formal use at important events within the family, such as weddings. It is likely Manchu women wore them, as the proportions of the jacket indicate they were worn over a long gown. Personal preference would dictate their use, and the fact they were cheaper to produce than a full-length robe may have added to their attraction.

Manchu women wore a dianzi headdress on informal festive occasions. The one shown here (Fig. 75) is made of wire lattice woven with black silk ribbon and decorated with kingfisher feather inlay and gold filigree in the style of the “endless knot,” with butterflies and the shou character.

Fig. 71 Roundel with a two-toed profile dragon in kesi, from a Manchu ladies surcoat, mid-19th c.

Fig. 72 Manchu lady’s dragon jacket in kesi, with four five-claw front-facing dragons surrounded by Buddhist emblems, ca. 1825–50.

Fig. 73 The Guangxu Emperor’s consort, Dowager Duan Kang, wearing the first style surcoat over a matching five-clawed dragon robe, its wide cuffs turned back over the surcoat, ca. 1913.

Fig. 74 Lower-ranking noblewoman’s official surcoat with eight roundels, each containing the shou character surrounded by bats and peonies, a wish for happiness and long life, the li shui at the hem embroidered with Buddhist emblems, early 19th c.

Fig. 75 Manchu headdress called a dianzi for informal festive occasions such as birthdays, ceremonies, and New Year celebrations, made of wire lattice woven with black silk ribbon and decorated with kingfisher feather inlay and gold filigree in the style of the Endless Knot, with butterflies and the shou character.

Fig. 76 Non-official formal surcoat for a lower-ranking noblewoman, with eight floral roundels and li shui hem, early 19th c.

Fig. 77 Non-official formal robe with eight floral roundels, Qianlong period.

Fig. 78 Manchu bride, with her maid, wearing a surcoat with eight roundels, with no li shui, ca. 1870.

Non-official Dress

Non-official formal robes were worn for weddings and other important family occasions not connected with the court. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, formal robes, like the dragon robes of this period, had wide sleeves with horse-hoof cuffs, and a plain band rather than a ribbed one between the cuff and upper sleeve (Fig. 77). In practice, these robes were the same as those worn for official formal occasions by noblewomen and wives of officials. Eight roundels with shou or, later, other motifs were dispersed over the robe, which had either a li shui or plain hem. Worn with a surcoat having eight roundels with shou or floral patterns, some had the li shui pattern at the hem and cuffs, while others did not (Fig. 76).

A Manchu bride of an official wore a non-official formal robe with horse-hoof cuffs and eight roundels on the gown. Later in the dynasty, these garments were predominantly made in red, reflecting the Han influence of this auspicious “Chinese” color (Fig. 79). A dark blue surcoat was worn over this robe, and an elaborate head-dress completed the outfit (Fig. 78).

Non-official semiformal robes were very lavishly embroidered, particularly those worn by the Empress Dowager Cixi, who favored pastel shades of blue, lilac, and pink as she felt the yellow dragon robes were unflattering to her ageing skin tone (Figs. 80, 81). The contrasting borders on clothing after the middle of the nineteenth century were based on Han styling, and indicated assimilation into Chinese culture.

In addition to the rules governing the types of fabric for certain times of the year, each season was identified with a particular flower and these appeared as motifs on semiformal robes. The flower for spring was the peony (since 1994 the peony has been the national flower of China, symbolizing love of peace and the pursuit of happiness), for summer the lotus flower, for autumn the chrysanthemum, and for winter the plum blossom. For ladies at court in the late nineteenth century, to wear the wrong flower was to disobey the imperial decree and risk incurring the wrath of the Empress Dowager (Figs. 82, 83).

Non-official robes of this period often had three very wide bands running around the edges of the robe: the outer made of brocade, the middle a wide border of embroidery, and the inner a multicolored woven ribbon (Fig. 84). Semiformal robes had wide sleeves with turned-back cuffs, which were then lavishly embroidered on the underside. In place of the zai shui pointed kerchief, women of the imperial family in informal dress wore a narrow band of silk embroidered with auspicious symbols and decorated with jewels. It looped around the neck, with one end tucked into the top of the gown.

Informal robes were plainer than semiformal ones, and comprised a silk damask body with a less elaborate border on the straight cuffs, around the neck, and down the side, and sometimes around the hem, although this was more common on the more formal robes (Fig. 85). They were worn with a long or short sleeveless waistcoat fastening down the center or at the side, with a wide decorated border, or a short jacket (Figs. 86–88).

The clothing of servants in the palace reflected their lowly status, as recalled by a palace maid: “We had to be completely unobtrusive. Our clothes were provided by the Palace. Come the spring, we would be measured for four sets of vest, blouse, robe and waistcoat. Except in October (the month of the empress dowager’s birthday), when we were allowed to wear red, most of the year we were confined to a few colors – in spring and summer we dressed in pale blue or green, in autumn and winter a purplish brown. We wore our hair in a thick plait, tied at the end by a short red ribbon” (Holdsworth and Courtauld, 1995: 85).

Fig. 79 Manchu bride’s robe in red kesi, with Buddhist emblems in the eight roundels, and a deep li shui at the hem, latter half of the 19th c.

Fig. 80 Non-official semiformal robe in lilac kesi with shou characters, chrysanthemums, and bats, with more shou characters and chrysanthemums inside the sleeves, said to have belonged to the Empress Dowager Cixi.

Fig. 81 Manchu lady’s blue embroidered robe with flowers and birds, with butterflies and double happiness characters on the borders.

Fig. 82 Red silk robe, fully lined with white fur, embroidered with butterflies and flowers, edged with braid and an embroidered border of narcissus, made for the Lunar New Year.

Fig. 83 The Empress Dowager Cixi in the garden of the Summer Palace, wearing a full-length cape pleated into a neckband and falling straight to the hem, designed for cooler weather, ca. 1905. She is attended by her lady-in-waiting, Princess Der Ling.

Fig. 84 The Empress Dowager Cixi wearing a non-official semiformal robe emblazoned with shou characters, late 19th c. Note the neckband and nail extenders.

Fig. 85 Daughters-in-law of Prince Ding in informal dress, with Mrs Headland, wife of I. T. Headland, author of several books on China, ca. 1910.

Fig. 86 Manchu woman in non-official informal dress, consisting of a long robe and sleeveless waistcoat and headdress, late 19th c.

Fig. 87 Manchu woman’s informal vest with fine couched gold and silver thread in a design of grapes and leaves on a blue and pink silk background, edged with bands of the key fret design to form the ruyi shape, a desire that all wishes will come true, the gold buttons bearing characters for “double happiness.”

Fig. 88 Two seated Manchu women at a ceremony in a country yamen where a Manchu official held office, ca. 1904.

On non-official occasions, Manchu women wore an unusual headdress called a liang ba tou, with batwing-like shapes formed from false hair or black satin arranged over a frame which was anchored with hairpins to the natural hair (Fig. 89). Literally “two handfuls of hair,” the hair itself was originally set and shaped this way, but during the nineteenth century was replaced by black satin as being more practical and easier to maintain. As the Qing dynasty drew to a close, the headdress became larger. Artificial blossoms were placed at each side, silk tassels were hung down the sides, and the whole creation was embellished with jeweled ornaments (Fig. 90). However, older women continued to wear a smaller, less elaborate liang ba tou made of stiffened black satin formed over a cross-piece of gilded silver and mounted on a wire base.

Most people of gentility cultivated at least one long fingernail to show that they did not engage in manual work. To preserve the treasured nail, women – though not men – wore 3 inch (7 cm] long nail guards made of gold, silver gilt, enamel, or tortoiseshell in filigree designs of coins or longevity and other auspicious symbols. Often two different pairs were worn on the third and fourth fingers of each hand (Fig. 91).

Unlike Han Chinese women, Manchu women did not bind their feet. Instead, those from high-ranking families wore a special shoe, exaggeratedly elevated, with a concave heel in the center of the instep (Fig. 93). The bottom of the shoe was padded with layers of cotton to prevent jarring when walking. The vamp was made of silk and embroidered with designs of flowers, birds, and fruit (Fig. 92). As well as allowing the Manchu women to imitate the swaying gait resulting from bound feet, the shoes also made them tower over the diminutive Chinese: “… the shoes stand upon a sole of four or six inches [10 or 15 cm] in height, or even more. These soles, which consist of a wooden frame upon which white cotton cloth is stretched, are quite thin from the toe and heel to about the center of the foot, when they curve abruptly downwards, forming a base of two or three inches square [5 or 8 cm]. In use they are exceedingly inconvenient, but … they show the well-to-do position of the wearer. The Manchu are … a taller race than the Chinese, and the artificial increase to the height afforded by these shoes gives them at times almost startling proportions” (Hosie, 1904: 157).

Empress Dowager Cixi is often shown raising the hem of her gown to reveal a splendidly decorated shoe. Even late in life, she retained her love of finery and the heels of her elevated shoes are dripping with strings of pearls matching her pearl collar. Shoes with concave heels must have been quite difficult to walk in, however, and for informal wear, and among the lower ranks of Manchu women, shoes with boat-shaped convex soles were worn.

Fig. 89 “Batwing” headdress made of false hair, worn by a Manchu noble-woman.

Fig. 90 “Batwing headdress” covered in black satin with jewels and artificial peonies, worn by a young Manchu woman.

Fig. 91 Manchu woman in North China wearing elevated shoes and nail extenders, ca. 1910.

Fig. 92 Uncut vamps in kesi for a pair of Manchu woman’s shoes with a finely detailed design of phoenixes and peonies.

Fig. 93 Manchu women’s shoes with a satin vamp embroidered with flowers and cotton-covered soles.

Fig. 94 Dragon robe for a young prince, with the Twelve Imperial Symbols and nine gold-couched five-clawed dragons embroidered onto yellow satin, ca. 1800.

Manchu Children’s Clothing