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Abbott, Sir John Joseph Caldwell (1821-1893). Educated at McGill University; studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1847. A candidate for the Legislative Assembly for Argenteuil, 1857, but defeated by Sydney Bellingham. Bellingham subsequently unseated and Abbott declared elected, 1860. Solicitor-general for Lower Canada in Macdonald-Sicotte ministry, 1862-1863, and for a few days retained same position in Macdonald-Dorion ministry. From 1867 to 1874 and from 1880 to 1887 represented Argenteuil in House of Commons. May, 1887, admitted to Macdonald ministry as minister without portfolio, and at same time appointed to Senate, where he became leader of the Conservative party. On death of Macdonald, became prime minister, June, 1891; held this position until ill health compelled him to resign, November, 1892. A recognized authority on questions of commercial and constitutional law. Framed Insolvent Act of 1864, and Jury Law Consolidation Act of Lower Canada. Bib.: Annual Register, 1893; Terrill, Chronology of Montreal; Thomas, History of Argenteuil and Prescott; Weir, Sixty Years in Canada; Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years.

Abbott, Joseph (1789-1863). Born and educated in England. Came to Canada, 1818. Missionary of the Church of England. Wrote The Emigrant, containing information for farmers about Canada.

Abercrombie, James. Entered the army, and obtained a captaincy in the 42nd or 1st Battalion of Royal Highlanders, 1756. Appointed aide-de-camp to Major-General Amherst, 1759, with whom he made the campaigns in Canada of that and the following year. Appointed major of the 78th or 2nd Highland Battalion, 1760, and, in September following, employed by General Amherst in communicating to the Marquis de Vaudreuil the conditions preparatory to the surrender of Montreal, and in obtaining his signature to them. The 78th Regiment having been disbanded in 1763, retired on half-pay. Again entered active service, 1770, as lieutenant-colonel of the 22nd Regiment, then serving in America under the command of Lieutenant-General Gage; killed in the battle of Bunker Hill, June 17th, 1775. Bib.: Doughty, Siege of Quebec.

Abercromby, James (1706-1781). Entered the army, and obtained commission as major, 1742; lieutenant-colonel, 1744; colonel, 1746. Sent to America with 50th Regiment, 1756; superseded Shirley and Webb in command of the army; and then resigned command to Lord Loudoun. In 1757 commanded second brigade against Louisbourg. On Loudoun’s recall, became commander-in-chief, 1758. Led expedition against Ticonderoga, with Lord Howe as second in command. On Howe’s death, the campaign became a dismal failure for the British, Abercromby being outgeneralled at every point by Montcalm. Returned to England, and in 1772 deputy governor of Stirling Castle. See also Howe; Rogers; Ticonderoga. Bib.: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe; Rogers, Journals during the Late War, ed. by Hough.

Aberdeen. Mountain peak in Canadian Rockies, near Lake Louise, named after Marquess of Aberdeen. Height, 10,250 feet. First climbed in 1894 by W. D. Wilcox, S. E. S. Allen and L. F. Frissell. Bib.: Outram, In the Heart of the Canadian Rockies.

Aberdeen, John Campbell Hamilton Gordon, Marquess of (1847-). A baronet of Nova Scotia. Born in Edinburgh, Scotland. Succeeded to peerage, 1870. Appointed viceroy of Ireland, 1886. Governor-general of Canada, 1893. Again viceroy of Ireland, 1905. Outstanding events of his term in Canada were the Colonial Conference at Ottawa, the meeting of the Bering Sea Seal Commission at Victoria, Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee, the Second Colonial Conference in London, and the meeting of the British Association at Toronto. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Who’s Who; We Twa.

Abnaki Indians. A tribe of the Algonquian family, inhabiting a portion of what is now the state of Maine. One of their villages near the mouth of the Penobscot was the mythical Norembega. They were early converts of the French missionaries, and made common cause with the French against the English colonists. A number were brought to Canada in the seventeenth century, and formed a settlement on the St. Francis River, a few miles above its junction with the St. Lawrence. The Indian town was destroyed by Robert Rogers in 1759. The remainder of the tribe now at St. Francis and Bécancour in Quebec, and in New Brunswick. Bib.: Parkman, Frontenac and Montcalm and Wolfe; Pilling, Bibliography of Algonquian Languages; Vetromile, The Abnakis and their History.

Abraham, Plains of. See Plains of Abraham.

Academy of Arts. See Royal Canadian Academy of Arts.

Acadia. The name of Acadia or “la Cadie” is found as early as November 8th, 1603, in the commission of Henry IV appointing Pierre du Gua, Sieur de Monts, lieutenant-general in La Cadie, extending from the fortieth to the forty-sixth degree of north latitude. The limits were afterwards reduced, and the boundaries of Acadia became a cause of contention between France and England. France claimed that the English possessions were restricted to the peninsula of Nova Scotia, and that the territory now known as New Brunswick had not been ceded to England. The first settlement in Acadia was on the Island of St. Croix in 1604, but the following year it was transferred to Port Royal, and abandoned in 1607. Three years later the Sieur de Poutrincourt established a new settlement at Port Royal, which was destroyed by Argall in 1613. In September, 1621, James I granted the territory of Acadia, under the name of Nova Scotia, to Sir William Alexander. This grant was renewed in July, 1625, by Charles I. A small Scottish settlement was established at Port Royal by the grantee. Acadia was restored to France by the treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye in 1632, and during the same year new settlers were brought from France. Acadia was finally ceded to Great Britain by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Bib.: Champlain, Voyages; Lescarbot, New France; Denys, Acadia; Parkman, Pioneers of France; Rameau de Saint-Père, Une Colonie Féodale; Calnek and Savary, History of the County of Annapolis; Moreau, Histoire de l’Acadie; Hannay, History of Acadia; Campbell, History of Nova Scotia; Murdoch, History of Nova Scotia.

Acadia College. Situated at Wolfville, Nova Scotia. Founded by the Nova Scotia Baptist Education Society, 1838. Application made to the Nova Scotia Assembly for incorporation as “The Trustees, Governors and Fellows of the Queen’s College.” The corporation created with university powers, 1840. At the next meeting of the Legislature its name changed to Acadia College. Power of appointing governors transferred from the Education Society to the Baptist Convention of the Maritime Provinces, 1851. Final changes in the Act of Incorporation, 1891. Bib.: Canada: An Ency., vol. 4.

Acadian. Newspaper published at Halifax, devoted largely to literary matters. Purchased and edited by Joseph Howe in 1827. Formerly the Weekly Chronicle, published by William Minns.

Acadians. The first permanent settlers were those who came with De Razilly in 1632, and from these the Acadians of to-day are descended. Other French immigrants were brought by d’Aulnay de Charnisay from 1639 to 1649, and by La Tour and Le Borgne in 1651 and 1658 respectively. There were also small immigrations at divers later dates. The first general nominal census was taken in 1671, and gave a population Of 392 souls. In 1686 there were 885 persons in Acadia. Seven years later the inhabitants numbered 1,018. When Acadia was ceded to Britain in 1713, the Acadian population was 2,500. Although from 1713 to 1745 a number of families had escaped to the new French colonies of Isle Royale and Isle St. Jean (now Cape Breton and Prince Edward Island), still in 1749, when the British settled Halifax, there were about 12,500 Acadians in the province. Another large influx of population to the same colonies, and to the St. John River, took place between 1749 and 1755, yet there remained in the latter year in the peninsula and in the Isthmus of Chignecto some 10,000 inhabitants, of whom nearly 7,000 were deported in 1755. The rest escaped to the woods; some went to Miramichi, and later to Baie de Chaleur; others crossed over to the Isles Royale and St. Jean, and quite a number found their way to the St. John River, and from thence to the province of Quebec. The whole population of Acadians in the peninsula, the Isthmus of Chignecto, the St. John River, Isle Royale, and Isle St. Jean, at the time of the expulsion, is computed at 16,000. Bib.: Murdoch, History of Nova Scotia; Campbell, History of Nova Scotia; Haliburton, Historical and Statistical Account of Nova Scotia; Hannay, History of Acadia; Raymond, St. John River; Gaudet, Acadian Genealogy (Report on Dominion Archives, 1905, vol. 2).

Acadians, Expulsion of the. Governor Lawrence in 1755, with the advice of his Council and of Admirals Boscawen and Mostyn, but apparently without consulting the home government, decided that the Acadians must be deported from Nova Scotia. The reason for this decision was the obstinate refusal of the Acadians to take the oath of allegiance, and the conviction of the governor that the safety of the colony depended upon their expulsion. In September, 1755, all preparations having been made with the utmost secrecy, Monckton at Beauséjour, Winslow at Grand Pré, Murray at Piziquid, and Handfield at Annapolis, seized the inhabitants and held them prisoners until the arrival of the transport and provision ships. These having been delayed, the final embarkation did not take place until late in December. The Acadians were distributed among the British colonies along the Atlantic seaboard. Some hired vessels in 1763, and sailed to Miquelon, and in 1767 and following years returned gradually to their old Acadian home. Others came directly to Nova Scotia in 1766, there being no longer any reason for their exclusion, while others went north to Quebec or south to Louisiana. The present Acadian population in the three Maritime Provinces is over 150,000, and these are the descendants of the few families who escaped deportation, and of those who returned from exile. Bib.: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe; Richard, Acadia; Casgrain, Un Pélérinage au Pays d’Evangeline; Une Seconde Acadie; Les Sulpiciens et les Prêtres des Missions Etrangéres en Acadia; Documents Inédits sur l’Acadie, 1710-1815; Archibald, Expulsion of Acadians (N.S. Hist. Soc. Coll., 1887); Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia, ed. by Akins; Calnek and Savary, History of the County of Annapolis; Doughty, The Acadian Exiles.

Accommodation. First steamboat on the St. Lawrence. Built by John Molson at Montreal. Arrived at Quebec from Montreal, November 5th, 1809, making the run in thirty-six hours. The vessel measured eighty-five feet over all, had sixteen feet beam, and was equipped with an engine of six horse-power. See also Molson; Steamships. Bib.: Semi-Centennial Report of Montreal Board of Trade, 1893.

Adams. United States twelve-gun brig on Lake Erie in War of 1812. Surrendered to the British on capture of Detroit and name changed to Detroit. Recaptured by the Americans at Fort Erie and burnt. Bib.: Lucas, Canadian War of 1812.

Adams, John. Came to Nova Scotia from Boston. Appointed member of the Council, 1720. After the death of Lawrence Armstrong, administered the government during 1739 and 1740. Returned to Boston, 1740, as blindness prevented him from attending to his duties.

Agniers. See Mohawks.

Agriculture. Made little progress either in volume or methods during the French period. Societies for improving the conditions of agriculture were founded in Nova Scotia, 1789; in Quebec the same year; and in Upper Canada in 1792. Simcoe in Upper Canada and Dorchester in Lower Canada did much to further agricultural interests, but Quebec owes most to J. F. Perrault (q.v.), and Nova Scotia to John Young (q.v.). Elgin took a deep interest in the encouragement of farming; and under the Hincks-Morin government a department of agriculture was established, charged among other things with the founding of model farms and agricultural schools. In the West, agricultural experiments were carried out as early as 1820 in the Red River Colony; also on the Pacific Coast. An agricultural school was founded at Ste. Anne de la Pocatière in 1859; the Guelph Agricultural College was established in 1874; the Nova Scotia School of Agriculture, 1885; and the Macdonald College, at Ste. Anne de Bellevue, opened in the fall of 1907. Agricultural Colleges are also in operation in connection with the provincial universities of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. See also Guelph Agricultural College; Macdonald College; Puget Sound Agricultural Society. Bib.: Canada: An Ency., vol. 5; Skelton, General Economic History of the Dominion, in Canada and its Provinces; Report of Ontario Agricultural Commission, 1881.

Aikins, Sir James Albert Manning (1851-). Born at Grahamsville, Ontario. Son of the following. After taking his M.A. at Toronto University, he studied law and was called to the bar, 1878; Q. C., 1884. President, Canadian Bar Association. Represented Canada at the International Congress on Moral Education at The Hague, 1912. Represented Brandon in the House of Commons, 1911-1915. Lieutenant-governor of Manitoba, 1916.

Aikins, James Cox (1823-1896). Educated at Victoria College. Elected for Peel County, 1854, and sat in Assembly until 1861. Elected to Legislative Council, 1862; and at Confederation became a member of the Dominion Senate. Secretary of state in Macdonald administration, 1869-1873, and again in 1878-1880; minister of inland revenue, 1880-1882; lieutenant-governor of Manitoba, 1882-1888; again called to Senate, 1896. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Morgan, Can. Men; Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

Ailleboust de Coulonge, Louis d’. Administered settlement of Villemarie during the absence of Maisonneuve. Promoted to governorship of Three Rivers. Became governor of Canada, 1648. Succeeded by Lauzon, 1651. Administered the colony, 1657. Died at Quebec, 1660. Bib.: Parkman, Old Régime; Douglas, Old France in the New World.

Aillon, Father de la Roche d’. Récollet missionary. Acted as interpreter between Champlain and Kirke. Negotiations carried on in Latin. Returned to France, 1629. Bib.: Kirke, The First English Conquest of Canada.

Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of. Signed between Great Britain and France, April 18th, 1748. Brought the War of the Austrian Succession to a close. The practical effect of the treaty was to renew the status quo. All former treaties were renewed and all conquests restored. So far as British North America was concerned, the most vital article was that which provided for the restoration to France of Cape Breton. Bib.: Hertslet, Treaties and Conventions.

Akamina Pass. Through the Rockies, immediately north of the international boundary. The eastern side of the pass is in Waterton National Park. Height above sea level, 5,835 feet. Name of Indian origin, and applied in 1861 by the International Boundary Commission. Means “high beach land.”

Alabama Claims. A Southern privateer, the Alabama, escaped from a British port and destroyed Northern shipping. United States claimed compensation from England. Claims referred to a joint high commission, with other matters in dispute, 1871. Sir John Macdonald one of British commissioners. Claims submitted to arbitration. Geneva award required England to pay the United States $15,500,000. See also Washington, Treaty of.

Alaska Boundary Question. Arose out of differences of opinion as to the interpretation of the 1825 Convention between Russia and Great Britain, and particularly as to the boundary of the coast-strip. The United States contention was that the boundary should follow a line approximately parallel to the coast and thirty marine miles distant therefrom; the Canadian, that it should follow the summit of the first range, crossing many of the inlets near their mouths. The decision of the Joint Commission of 1903 did not concede the United States claims in full, but gave them an unbroken littoral, substantially what they had contended for. Bib.: Hodgins, British and American Diplomacy Affecting Canada; MacArthur, The Alaska Boundary Award, in the Univ. Mag., December, 1907; Bourinot, Canada under British Rule; Proceedings of the Alaska Boundary Tribunal, Washington, 1904; Davidson, The Alaska Boundary; Ewart, The Kingdom of Canada; White, Boundary Disputes and Treaties (Canada and its Provinces).

Albanel, Charles (1613-1696). Came to America from France, 1649. Jesuit missionary. Made expeditions from Quebec to Hudson Bay by way of the Saguenay in 1671-1672, and again in 1674. Met Radisson at the Hudson’s Bay Company’s post at the mouth of Rupert River. Carried prisoner to England. Returned to Canada, 1675, and sent to western missions. Died at Sault Ste. Marie. Bib.: Jesuit Relations; Laut, Pathfinders of the West; Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America.

Albany River. Empties into west side of James Bay after a course of 610 miles. Named after the Duke of York and Albany, later James II. Fort Albany stands at its mouth. Several other posts of the Hudson’s Bay Company are on its upper waters. Bib.: Ami, Canada and Newfoundland; Atlas of Canada.

Alberta. Created a province of the Dominion on September 1st, 1905. Includes the former district of Alberta, with the west half of Athabaska, and a strip of Assiniboia and Saskatchewan. Area, 255,285 square miles; population (census, 1921), 588,454. The former district or territory of Alberta was named in honour of the Princess Louise. Seat of government, Edmonton. See also North-West Territories.

Alberta, University of. Created by Act of the Legislature of Alberta passed at the first session after provincial autonomy had been granted. First president appointed, 1908. Seat of university at Strathcona, on the Saskatchewan River, now part of the city of Edmonton.

Alexander, Sir William. See Stirling, Earl of.

Algie, Wallace Lloyd. Lieutenant in the 20th Battalion, C. E. F. Won the Victoria Cross by conspicuous bravery and self-sacrifice on the eleventh of October, 1918, near Cambrai, when with attacking troops which came under heavy enfilade machine-gun fire from a neighbouring village. His valour and personal initiative in the face of intense fire saved many lives and enabled the position, which he had won by capturing machine-guns and turning them on the enemy, to be held. Having gone back for reinforcements, he was killed in leading them forward.

Algonquian Indians. The name is now applied to what was the most widely distributed linguistic stock of North America. Their territory reached from Newfoundland to the Rocky Mountains, and from Churchill river to Pamlico Sound. They embraced such widely-scattered tribes as the Blackfoot, Chippawa, Cree, Montagnais, Micmac, and Malecite. In the days of French Canada, the name was given to a comparatively unimportant tribe, whose home was on the banks of the Ottawa. Bib.: Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac; Brinton, The Lenape and Their Legends; Pilling, Bibliography of the Algonquian Languages; Hodge, Handbook of American Indians.

Aliens. Acts have been passed at different times in Canada, designed to protect the country against sedition or anti-British sentiment. Dorchester had an Act passed by the Assembly in 1794. Another was adopted in Upper Canada in 1804. Imperial statutes were passed in 1790 and 1826. Bib.: Bradley, Dorchester; Lindsey, Mackenzie.

Allan, George William (1822-1901). Born in York, Upper Canada. Educated at Upper Canada College; studied law and called to the bar, 1846. Served with the volunteers during the Rebellion of 1837. Mayor of Toronto, 1855; elected member of the Legislative Council, 1858; appointed to the Senate, 1867; Speaker of the Senate, 1888-1891. From 1877 until his death, chancellor of Trinity University. He was a generous patron of Art, and in particular made possible Paul Kane’s series of Indian pictures. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Allan, Sir Hugh (1810-1882). Founder of the Allan line of steamships. Came to Canada from Scotland, 1826, and in 1831 entered the shipbuilding firm of James Millar & Co., Montreal, of which he became a partner in 1835. In 1853 his firm began building iron screw steamships, and their first vessel, the Canadian, made its first voyage in 1855. The following year, with a fleet of four vessels, a regular service was opened between Canada and England, with fortnightly sailings. In 1859 the fleet was increased to eight steamers, and a weekly service opened. From these small beginnings, the Allan Line has risen to a foremost place in transatlantic transportation. Sir Hugh Allan was president of the first company which undertook to build the Canadian Pacific Railway, and his corrupt bargain with the government of the day led to the Pacific Scandal and the temporary downfall of Sir John Macdonald. See also Transportation; Canadian Pacific Railway; Molson; Cunard; Royal William. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Dent, Can. Por.; Taylor, Brit. Am.; Canada: An Ency., vol. 3; Semi-Centennial Report of Montreal Board of Trade, 1893.

Allcock, Henry. Studied law at Lincoln’s Inn, and called to the bar, 1791. In November, 1798, appointed judge of Court of King’s Bench for Upper Canada. Elected to Legislative Assembly for constituency of Durham, Simcoe, and E. York, 1800, but unseated by the Assembly, June, 1801. Under the direction of Lieutenant-Governor Hunter, engaged in the preparation of a bill to establish a Court of Equity in the province, and was to have been the first chancellor of the Court. The Court of Equity, however, was not at this time established, and on the removal of Chief-Justice Elmsley to Lower Canada, October, 1802, Allcock was appointed chief-justice of Upper Canada, and a member of the Executive and Legislative Councils. On the death of Elmsley, promoted to chief-justice of Lower Canada, July 1st, 1805. In August, 1806, took his seat as a member of the Executive Council, and in January, 1807, appointed a member and chairman of the Legislative Council. Died at Quebec, February 22nd, 1808. Bib.: Read, Lives of the Judges; Cartwright, Life and Letters of Richard Cartwright.

Allen, Ethan (1737-1789). A resourceful but not over scrupulous Vermonter, leader of a guerilla corps, the Green Mountain Boys. Captured Ticonderoga and Crown Point, May, 1775, and seized St. Johns. In September he made a demonstration against Montreal, was captured and sent to England in irons. After the peace he was released and returned to Vermont, where for several years he and his brothers were engaged in a supposed attempt to bring Vermont back to British allegiance as a separate colony, the refusal of Congress to give Vermont the status of a state having embittered the Vermonters. See also Montgomery; Arnold; American Invasion. Bib.: Allen’s Captivity: Being a Narrative Containing His Voyages, Travels, etc.; Henry Hall, Ethan Allen; Jared Sparks, American Biography, ser. 1, vol. I; Cyc. Am. Biog.; Bradley, The Making of Canada; McIlraith, Haldimand; Bradley, Dorchester.

Allen, Ira (1751-1814). Brother of Ethan, and associated with him in most of his enterprises. Bib.: See previous title.

Allen, Isaac (1741-1806). United Empire Loyalist. Served as lieutenant-colonel of New Jersey Volunteers. Emigrated to St. John, N.B., after the Revolution, and was a grantee of that town. Became a member of the Executive Council, and a judge of the Supreme Court. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Allen, Sir John Campbell (1817-1898). Born in county of York, New Brunswick. Studied law in Fredericton, and called to the bar in 1840. In 1842 appointed one of the commissioners to settle land claims under the Treaty of Washington. Elected to the Assembly for York, 1857. Solicitor-general same year. Speaker of New Brunswick Assembly, 1862-1865. Attorney-general, 1865. Sent as a delegate to England to represent views of New Brunswick in opposition to confederation. In 1865 appointed puisne judge of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick; in 1875 chief-justice. In 1866 he had been made vice-president of the Court of Governor and Council for determining suits relating to marriage and divorce. In 1878 one of the arbitrators for settling the north-west boundary of Ontario. Bib.: Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

Allen, William. United Empire Loyalist. Son of Chief-Justice Allen of Pennsylvania. Served under Howe in 1776, and in 1778 raised the Pennsylvania Loyalists, which he commanded. He was a grantee of St. John, N.B., in 1783, and his American estate was confiscated. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Allouez, Father Claude (1622-1689). Came to Quebec, 1657. Left for the West, 1665. Reached Lake Superior in September, which he named Lac Tracy, and founded a mission at Chequamegon Bay; went to Green Bay, Lake Michigan, 1669, and established a mission on Fox River. The remainder of his life was spent in the Illinois country. He met La Salle there in 1679. Bib.: Shea, Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi Valley; Griffin, Discovery of the Mississippi; Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America.

Allsopp, George. Settled in Quebec, 1761, and became prominent in maintaining the rights of the civil authority as opposed to the military. January, 1766, appointed deputy secretary, clerk of the Council, and registrar of enrolments, but because of his opposition to the government, Murray refused to admit him to office. In April, 1768, Carleton confirmed him in these appointments, which he retained until superseded by George Pownall in 1775. From 1771 to 1776 deputy commissary-general. One of the original members of the Legislative Council under the Quebec Act. In 1780, when the Legislative Council presented an address to Haldimand opposing the passing of an ordinance amending the judicial system of the province in accordance with royal instructions to the governor, voted against the address and caused a strongly worded protest to be entered in the minutes of the Council. This action resented by members of the Council, and ultimately led to his dismissal by Haldimand, February, 1783. Bib.: Christie, History of Lower Canada.

Alwington. Name of governor-general’s residence at Kingston.

American Invasion (1775-1776). Grew out of the belief entertained by the rebellious colonists that the French of Canada could readily be won to their side. As a matter of fact the latter, while for the most part showing no enthusiasm to join Carleton’s forces, were still less inclined to coöperate with the invading army under Montgomery and Arnold, or to support the movement for union with the New Englanders. On the other hand, the Americans had a number of English-speaking sympathizers in Montreal—men who had come there from the colonies to the south. This, and its geographical position, made the capture of Montreal an easy matter; but Quebec was a different problem. Here Carleton gathered a small but efficient force of regulars and militia, and successfully held the town against the invading enemy. Montgomery was killed in the assault, December 31st, 1775, and in the spring of 1776 the siege was raised. The invading army hastily retreated to Montreal, and finally was driven out of the country. See also Montgomery; Arnold; Dorchester; Ethan Allen. Bib.: Kingsford, History of Canada; Smith, Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony; Stone, Invasion of Canada; Codman, Arnold’s Expedition to Quebec; Lucas, History of Canada; Coffin, The Province of Quebec and the Early American Revolution; Bradley, The Making of Canada.

Amherst, Jeffery, Baron (1717-1797). Born in Kent, England. Entered the army as a boy, served as aide-de-camp to the Duke of Cumberland in his German campaigns. In 1756 colonel of the 15th Infantry. In two years promoted to major-general. Sent to America, 1758, and in coöperation with Admiral Boscawen, captured Louisbourg that year. Made colonel Royal American Regiment, and succeeded Abercromby when the latter recalled. Took Ticonderoga and Crown Point in 1759, but, instead of advancing into Canada to make a diversion for Wolfe, he set his men to work building a new fort at Crown Point. The following year, Wolfe having in the meantime captured Quebec, Amherst brought all his available forces to the final conquest of Canada. Murray was to advance against Montreal from Quebec, Haviland by way of Lake Champlain, while he himself led the main army down the St. Lawrence from Lake Ontario. The three movements were successfully carried out, and, September 8th, Vaudreuil signed the capitulation of Montreal and all Canada. Appointed commander-in-chief and governor-general in America, 1761. Raised to peerage, 1776, as Baron Amherst of Holmesdale. Rose to be commander-in-chief of the army in England, and field-marshal. See also Louisbourg; Ticonderoga; Crown Point. Bib.: Expedition of British and Provincial Army against Ticonderoga and Crown Point; Samuel Waldo, Reduction of Louisbourg (Dominion Archives, 1886); Johnstone, Journal of Louisbourg, 1750-1758 (Coll. de doc. rel. à la Nouvelle France, vol. 3); Dict. of Eng. Hist.; Dict. Nat. Biog.; Bradley, The Fight with France; Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe.

Amherstburg. A town on the Canadian side of the Detroit River. Founded as a fort in 1796. In 1812 the village contained a court-house, and over a hundred houses. It was the only British naval station on Lake Erie. The fort, named Malden, was of little defensive value. An important military position in the war, garrisoned by about seven hundred militia. There is a description of it in Richardson’s War of 1812. Incorporated as a village in 1851, and as a town in 1878. Bib.: James, Early History of the Town of Amherstburg.

Amiens, Battle of. Opened August 8th, 1918. The Canadian line was from Thennas to the Amiens-Chaulnes railway line. Five divisions engaged. In fourteen days heavy fighting advanced at the farthest point over fourteen miles, capturing sixty-seven square miles of German defences. The Canadians fought fifteen German divisions and thoroughly defeated ten. Captured over 9,000 prisoners, 190 guns and thousands of machine-guns and trench-mortars. This decisive victory proved to be the turning point in the war and led the way to the final defeat of the German armies. Bib.: Hill, The Battle of Amiens in Canada in the Great World War, Vol. V.

Amiens, Treaty of. Signed between Great Britain and France, March 25th, 1802. Brought to an end the war that had lasted since 1793. Among other provisions, the Newfoundland fisheries were restored to the same position held before the war. Napoleon’s object in signing the treaty was to be free to recover Louisiana and St. Domingo. Had he succeeded in the former he would probably have made Louisiana the base of an attack on Canada. Finding he had to reckon with American opposition, he decided to sell Louisiana to the United States. Bib.: Hertslet, Treaties and Conventions; Bowman, Preliminary Stages of the Peace of Amiens; Lucas, History of Canada, 1763-1812.

Amnesty Acts, 1838 and 1849. The former was adopted by the Assembly of Upper Canada to enable the government to extend a conditional pardon in certain cases to those engaged in the Rebellion of 1837-1838. The latter was proposed by Elgin, on behalf of the Imperial government, as a measure of pardon for those implicated in the same Rebellion, and passed by the Legislature of Canada. Led to riots in Montreal and the burning of the Parliament building. Bib.: Dent, Last Forty Years; Leacock, Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks; Lindsey, Mackenzie.

Anderson, A. Caulfield. An officer of the Hudson’s Bay Company, employed for many years in the New Caledonia district, under Dr. McLoughlin. He had charge of Fort Alexandria, on the Fraser river, and explored a road from Kamloops to the lower Fraser. Bib.: Coats and Gosnell, Sir James Douglas.

Anderson, Anthony. One of the officers assigned by William Lyon Mackenzie to lead the rebels in the projected attack on Toronto in 1837. Shot and killed by John Powell, whom he was taking prisoner to Montgomery’s Tavern.

Anderson, David (1814-1885). Born in London, England. Educated at Edinburgh Academy and at Exeter College, Oxford. Vice-principal of St. Bees College, Cumberland, 1841-1847, and incumbent of All Saints’, Derby, 1848-1849. Came to the Red River Settlement as bishop of Rupert’s Land, 1849. Remained until 1864, when he returned to England. Subsequently vicar of Clifton and chancellor of St. Paul’s Cathedral, London. Bib.: Works: Notes on the Flood; Net in the Bay. For biog. see, Mockridge, The Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland; Machray, Life of Archbishop Machray.

Anderson, James. Chief Factor Hudson’s Bay Company, 1855. That year, under instructions from the Company, he made an expedition down Great Fish River, or Back River, to the Arctic Coast. He had been engaged previously in the Company’s service on the Pacific coast. Left a journal of his Arctic expedition; also one on the North-West coast. Bib.: Extracts from James Anderson’s Arctic Journals in Royal Geographical Journal, 1857. See also Bancroft, North-West Coast.

Anderson, Samuel (1735-1836). United Empire Loyalist. Born in New York. Emigrated to Canada at the beginning of the Revolution. Settled near Cornwall, Upper Canada, in 1783, after having served in the army under Sir John Johnson. Became judge of a district court, and afterwards of the Court of Queen’s Bench of Upper Canada. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

André, Louis. Jesuit missionary. Came to Canada in 1669, and from that time until 1684 laboured among the Ottawa Indians and in what is now Wisconsin. He was at Green Bay, 1671-1681. At a later period he was a missionary among the tribes on the lower St. Lawrence. Died at Quebec in 1715. Bib.: Jones, Louis André, in U.S. Cath. Hist. Mag., 1889.

Aneda. An evergreen, used by Jacques Cartier and his men as a remedy against scurvy. Parkman suggests that it was a spruce, or, more probably, an arbor-vitae. Douglas believes it to have been balsam. Cartier spells the name ameda, and Lescarbot, annedda.

Angers, Sir Auguste Rèal (1838-1919). Born in Quebec. Studied law, and called to the bar; made Q.C. 1880, and the same year appointed a puisne judge of the Superior Court of Quebec. Member Legislative Assembly of Quebec 1874-1879. Solicitor-general Quebec, 1874-1876; attorney-general, 1876-1878. Lieutenant-governor of Quebec, 1887; resigned and called to the Senate, 1892. Minister of agriculture, 1892-1895; president of the Council, 1896. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Chapais, Angers (Men of the Day).

Anglican Church. See Church of England.

Anglin, Francis Alexander (1865-). Son of following. Called to the bar, 1888; K. C., 1902. Senior judge Ontario High Court, 1904; puisne judge Supreme Court of Canada, 1909; chief-justice, 1924.

Anglin, Timothy Warren (1822-1886). Born in Ireland. Came to St. John, New Brunswick, 1849. Established Weekly Freeman that year. Elected to New Brunswick Legislature for St. John, 1860, and became a member of the Smith administration. Defeated for St. John County in 1866. Opposed Confederation. Elected to the House of Commons, 1867, for Gloucester. Elected Speaker, 1874, and again in 1878. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Hannay, Wilmot, Tilley.

Angus, Richard Bladworth (1831-1922). Born at Bathgate, near Edinburgh. Came to Canada, 1857, and joined the staff of the Bank of Montreal. Rose steadily in the service of the bank, and in 1869 became general manager. In 1879, associated with George Stephen (Lord Mount Stephen), Donald A. Smith (Lord Strathcona) and James J. Hill, in securing possession of the St. Paul and Pacific Railway, which later became the Great Northern, and laid the foundation of all their fortunes. President of the Bank of Montreal, 1910; and director of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who; Skelton, The Railway Builders.

Anian, Strait of. Supposed to lead through continent of North America. Dr. Ruge says that the name arose through a misunderstanding of Marco Polo’s book (bk. 3, ch. 5). His Ania “is no doubt the present Anam, but the Dutch cartographers thought that this land was in north-east Asia, and called the strait that was said to separate the continents the Strait of Anian.” The name appears for the first time on Gerh. Mercator’s famous maritime chart of 1569. It was sought by many early navigators as a way through the continent; and has been confused with Carver’s River of Oregon. Bib.: Soph Ruge, Fretum Aniam; Ami, Canada and Newfoundland.

Annand, William (1808-1892). Born in Halifax County. Entered the Nova Scotia Assembly as one of the members for Halifax, 1836; advocated non-sectarian college for Nova Scotia; financial secretary in Howe’s ministry, 1860-1863. An active opponent of Confederation, and an Anti-Confederate delegate to London in 1866. Formed the first Anti-Confederate or Repeal government in Nova Scotia, 1867; retired in 1874 to accept the position of immigration agent at London, where he died. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia; Saunders, Three Premiers of Nova Scotia.

Annapolis Royal. When Nicholson, with his fleet and New England troops, captured Port Royal in 1710, he changed the name to Annapolis Royal, in honour of Queen Anne. It was besieged the following year by the Acadians with their Micmac and Penobscot allies, but the New England garrison held the fort. Under treaty of Utrecht, 1713, ceded to England by France. In 1744 Paul Mascarene successfully defended the place against Du Vivier. Fort Anne created a National Park and maintained by Dominion government. In 1921 tablets were unveiled to commemorate the 300th anniversary of charter to Nova Scotia; 200th anniversary of the establishment of first Court of English Common Law; and 100th anniversary of arrival of Haliburton at Annapolis. See also Port Royal. Bib.: Calnek and Savary, History of the County of Annapolis; Nicholson, Journal of the Capture of Annapolis (N.S. Hist. Soc, vol. I).

Annexation to the United States. A fitful movement, never reaching serious proportions, and generally the result of temporary or local dissatisfaction with political conditions, or of commercial depression. Goldwin Smith was for many years its prophet, and Edward Farrer its publicity agent. Despite their eloquence they made few converts to annexation. It had been the aim of some at least of the leaders of the Rebellion of 1837-1838 in both provinces. It had been threatened on the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846; and again in 1849 when the adoption of the Rebellion Losses Bill led to the famous Annexation Manifesto. Bib.: Dent, Last Forty Years; Weir, Sixty Years in Canada; Kirby, Counter-Manifesto to the Annexationists of Montreal; Denison, The Struggle for Imperial Unity; Allin and Jones, Annexation, Preferential Trade and Reciprocity; Egerton and Grant, Canadian Constitutional Development; “Proposals of Annexation” in Moore’s International Law Digest, vol. 1, 580.

Anti-Confederation Movement. The League of the Maritime Provinces was organized at Halifax in 1866. Joseph Howe was the moving spirit. Despite its name, the membership was confined to Nova Scotia and largely to Halifax. The League adopted a constitution, and sent Howe, Hugh McDonald and William Annand to oppose Confederation in England. The fight was mainly between these three and Tupper and Jonathan McCully. Failing to prevent passage of the British North America Act, Howe returned to Nova Scotia, and in the provincial elections he and the Anti-Confederates swept the province. In the elections for the new Dominion Parliament, eighteen out of nineteen Nova Scotian members were Anti-Confederate. Tupper stood alone for the new Dominion. Howe and his colleagues then started an agitation to withdraw Nova Scotia from Confederation, and again laid siege to the Imperial authorities, but once more without success. See also Howe, Joseph; Annand, William; Millar, William; Stairs, W. J.; Smith, Sir A. J.; Troop, J. C. Bib.: Speeches and Public Letters of Joseph Howe, ed. by J. A. Chisholm; Howe, Confederation considered in relation to the Interests of the Empire; Burpee, Joseph Howe and the Anti-Confederation League, in Trans. R.S.C., 1916.

Anticosti. Island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, with area of 2,460,000 acres. About 140 miles long and thirty-five miles broad at widest part. The first mention of the island is in Cartier’s narrative of his first voyage, 1534. The following year he again visited the island, which he named Isle de l’Assomption. On the origin of the present Indian name, see W. F. Ganong’s note, Royal Society Trans., 1889, II, 51. Louis XIV granted the island to Louis Jolliet in recognition of his geographical discoveries. Placed under jurisdiction of Newfoundland in 1763; transferred to Canada, 1774. Purchased by Menier, the French chocolate manufacturer, who stocked it with game and maintained it for some years as an immense estate. Bib.: Huard, Labrador et Anticosti; Guay, Lettres sur l’île Anticosti; Schmitt, Monographie de l’île d’Anticosti; Lewis, Menier and his Island.

Archibald, Sir Adams George (1814-1892). Educated at Pictou Academy. Studied law; in 1838 called to the bar of Prince Edward Island; and to that of Nova Scotia in 1839. Elected to the Nova Scotia Assembly for Colchester, 1851. Solicitor-general of Nova Scotia, 1856; attorney-general, 1860-1863. Delegate to the various Conferences leading up to Confederation. Became secretary of state for the provinces in the first Dominion ministry, 1867. Lieutenant-governor of Manitoba, 1870-1872; and of Nova Scotia, 1873-1883. Knighted, 1885. Bib.: Expulsion of Acadians (N.S. Hist. Soc., vol. 5). For biog., see Dent, Can. Por.; Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

Archibald, Sir Edward Mortimer (1810-1884). Born at Truro, Nova Scotia. Son of S. G. W. Archibald (q.v.). Studied law and called to the bar, 1831. The following year he was appointed Registrar of the Supreme Court of Newfoundland, and Clerk of the Assembly, and became attorney-general in 1841. Advocated reciprocity with the United States as early as 1849; and took a prominent part in the agitation in Newfoundland for a complete measure of responsible government, which was finally conceded in 1855. After a residence of twenty-three years in Newfoundland, he left the Ancient Colony, and after spending two years in Nova Scotia, was appointed, in 1857, British Consul at New York. This diplomatic post, second only in importance to that of ambassador, he occupied for twenty-six years, through such critical times as those of the War of the Rebellion, the Fenian Raids, and the Alabama Claims. As Sir Robert Borden has said, he filled this difficult office with keen foresight and wide vision, and earned not only the grateful appreciation of his own government, but the esteem and confidence of the government to which he was accredited. Bib.: Archibald, Life and Letters of Sir Edward Mortimer Archibald.

Archibald, Samuel George William (1777-1846). Born in Colchester County, Nova Scotia. Studied law and practised in Nova Scotia; obtained a seat in the Legislature; became Speaker, solicitor-general and afterwards attorney-general of the province. Chief-justice of Prince Edward Island, 1824-1828, remaining Speaker of the Nova Scotia Assembly and solicitor-general, during the whole term of his incumbency of the chief-justiceship. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia; Longworth, Life of S. G. W. Archibald.

Archives. Provision was made by the Parliament of Canada, in 1872, for an Archives Branch, and Douglas Brymner was appointed Dominion Archivist. His first report appeared in 1873. The earlier reports were of a preliminary nature, but in 1884 the first of the important series of calendars was included in the report. Abbé Verreau made a special report on historical material in Europe bearing on Canadian history, published in 1874. A report on manuscript material in the colonial archives at Paris, by Edouard Richard, was published as a supplement to the report for 1899. Dr. Brymner died in 1902, and Arthur G. Doughty was appointed Dominion Archivist in 1904. The report for 1905, in three volumes, represented a new departure; the publication of calendars was abandoned, and replaced by volumes containing series of documents relating to definite subjects, systematically arranged. The archives were moved into a special building in 1907. In 1910 began the issue of a series of publications, containing historical journals and other special material. In 1925 a new wing was added to the archives building at Ottawa. Provincial archives, of a more or less distinct character, have also been established in the provinces of Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, British Columbia, Manitoba, and Alberta.

Arctic Archipelago. Embraces the islands lying north of the mainland of Canada. Canada’s title rests on the discovery of these islands by British explorers, their transfer to the Dominion by the Imperial government, and the fact that they have been officially taken possession of and occupied on behalf of the Dominion government in recent years. By Imperial order-in-council, June 23rd, 1870, Rupert’s Land and the North-western Territory were united to Canada. The former, as claimed by the Hudson’s Bay Company, included parts of Cockburn Land and Baffin Land, north of Hudson Strait. The North-western Territory included all the unorganized territory to the west, and possibly to the north, of Canada and Rupert’s Land. Doubts existing as to the northerly and north-easterly boundaries of these territories, an Imperial order-in-council was passed July 31st, 1880, transferring to Canada “all British territories and possessions in North America not already included in the Dominion of Canada, and all islands adjacent to such territories or possessions” (except Newfoundland and its dependencies). This was confirmed by an Act of the British Parliament in 1895. Later in the same year a Canadian order-in-council was passed, and another in 1897, formally assigning the Arctic Islands to provisional districts then created. Mounted Police posts were established in these districts and the laws of Canada are in force therein. See also Sir Martin Frobisher; John Davis; Henry Hudson; Sir Thomas Button; Bylot and Baffin; Sir John Ross; Sir William Edward Parry; Sir John Franklin; Sir Robert McClure; Sir Edward Belcher; Sir Francis Leopold McClintock; Captain Joseph Elzear Bernier; Vilhjalmur Stefansson. Bib.: Johnson, Canada’s Northern Fringe; King, Report upon the Title of Canada to the Islands north of the Mainland of Canada.

Arctic Coast. First reached by Samuel Hearne, at mouth of Coppermine, 1771; by Alexander Mackenzie at mouth of the Mackenzie, 1789. Sir John Franklin reached the coast overland in 1821. Between that year and 1854 the Arctic Coast was surveyed by Richardson, Back, Dease and Simpson, Rae, and Anderson, from Point Barrow in the west to Melville Peninsula in the east. See under these names. Bib.: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

Argall, Sir Samuel. Born in Walthamstow, England. A type of the founders of British colonial dominion. Sent, May, 1609, with a small vessel to the new settlement at Jamestown, Va., to trade and fish. The following year took out Lord Delaware to Jamestown, arriving in time to save the colony from starvation. In 1612 carried off Pocahontas to the settlement of Jamestown. Later in the year sent with a vessel of fourteen guns to destroy the French settlements on the north coast, regarded as infringing on the Virginia patent. Captured Mount Desert, St. Croix, and Port Royal. On return voyage forced the commandant at New Amsterdam to recognize English suzerainty by hauling down the Dutch flag and running up the English. May, 1617, made deputy governor of Virginia. In 1620 served against the Algerine pirates under Sir Robert Mansell. Knighted in 1622. In 1625 admiral of a squadron cruising after a hostile Dunkirk fleet, and took some prizes. In October, 1625, with the futile expedition against Cadiz under Lord Wimbledon. Died, 1626. Bib.: Argall’s own narrative; Parkman, Pioneers of France; Calnek and Savary, History of the County of Annapolis.

Argenson, Pierre de Voyer, Vicomte d’ (1626-1710). Succeeded Jean de Lauson as governor of New France, 1658. His governorship marked by personal quarrels with Laval, and a series of humiliating raids throughout the colony by the Iroquois. Recalled in 1661. Bib.: Parkman, Old Régime; Douglas, Old France in the New World.

Argyll, John Douglas Sutherland Campbell, ninth Duke of (1845-1914). Married H. R. H. Princess Louise, 1871; succeeded to dukedom, 1900. Represented Argyllshire in Parliament, 1868-1878. Governor-general of Canada (as Marquis of Lorne), 1878-1883. Founded Royal Society of Canada, 1881. His tenure of office was marked by such notable events in Canadian history as the adoption of the National Policy, the turning of the first sod of the Canadian Pacific Railway, and the organization of the North-West into Provisional Districts. Bib.: Works: Memories of Canada and Scotland; Imperial Federation; Canadian Pictures; Passages from the Past. For biography, see Dent, Can. Por.; Who’s Who; Collins, Canada under the Administration of Lord Lorne.

Armistice. In War of 1812. Arranged by Sir George Prevost and General Dearborn, in 1812, to the mortification of Brock. It helped the Americans and crippled Brock. The capture of Detroit had inspired the Canadians and depressed the Americans, and, as Brock’s biographer says: “If General Brock’s hands had not been tied, he would doubtless have swept the frontier from Sandusky to St. Regis.”

Armour, John Douglas (1830-1903). Educated at Upper Canada College and the University of Toronto; studied law and called to the bar, 1853; made Q. C., 1867; Bencher of the Law Society, 1871. Appointed a puisne judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench of Ontario, 1877; raised to the chief-justiceship, 1887. Chief-justice of Ontario and president of the Court of Appeal, 1890. Judge of the Supreme Court of Canada, 1902; in the same year represented Canada on the Alaska Boundary Commission. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Dent, Can. Por.

Armstrong, Lawrence. Came to Nova Scotia as lieutenant-colonel of General Philipps’s regiment. Appointed to the governor’s Council, 1720. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1724; held office until 1739. Served in America for more than thirty years. Committed suicide, 1739. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia; Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia, ed. by Akins.

Arnold, Benedict (1741-1801). A druggist at New Haven, Conn. When the War of Independence broke out, in 1775, organized an expedition against the British on Lake Champlain. The same year led a body of picked men to Quebec by way of the Kennebec and Chaudière. After the unsuccessful assault on Quebec, was in several small engagements near Montreal; burnt the château of Senneville; narrowly escaped capture; finally driven out of the province. Commanded American vessels on Lake Champlain. Defeated near Crown Point. Given command of Philadelphia; took offence at slights put upon him by Congress, and attempted to betray West Point to Clinton. Afterwards commanded a corps of American refugees on the British side. In 1797 was an unsuccessful applicant for a grant of land in Upper Canada. Simcoe reported against it as “General Arnold is a character extremely obnoxious to the original Loyalists of America.” Arnold lived for some years in St. John, N. B., where he was equally unpopular. He settled for a time in the West Indies, and died in London. See also Montgomery; Ethan Allen; American Invasion. Bib.: Arnold, Life of Benedict Arnold; Todd, The Real Benedict Arnold; Sparks, American Biography; Codman, Arnold’s Expedition to Quebec; Henry, Arnold’s Campaign against Quebec; Smith, Arnold’s March from Cambridge to Quebec; Jones, The Campaign for the Conquest of Canada in 1776; Cyc. Am. Biog.

Aroostook War, 1839. Arose out of the unsettled boundary question between Maine and New Brunswick, each side claiming certain disputed territory. Troops were called out on both sides, but fortunately more sober counsels prevailed at the last minute, and General Winfield Scott and Sir John Harvey came to an agreement. Bib.: Sprague, The North-Eastern Boundary Controversy and the Aroostook War; Roberts, History of Canada.

Arthur, Sir George (1784-1854). The last lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, 1838-1841. He succeeded Sir Francis Bond Head, and inherited the difficult task of cleaning up after the Rebellion, a task in which he had only indifferent success. He has been condemned for unnecessary severity to those who had been involved in the Rebellion, or were suspected of disloyalty. Had been successively governor of Honduras and Van Diemen’s Land previous to his Canadian appointment; and on leaving Canada appointed to the governorship of Bombay. See Rebellion of 1837 (Upper Canada). Bib.: Kingsford, History of Canada; Dent, Upper Canadian Rebellion; Bradshaw, Self-Government in Canada; Read, Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada.

Ashburton, Alexander Baring, Baron (1774-1848). Entered Parliament in 1806. Opposed measures against American commerce. President of board of trade and master of mint, 1834. Raised to peerage, 1835. Commissioner at Washington for settlement of boundary dispute, 1842. He was bitterly condemned for sacrificing the interests of Canada in the treaty, but the fact seems to be that of the territory in dispute between Maine and New Brunswick, the United States actually got less in 1842 than had been awarded to her some years before by the King of the Netherlands, and which at the time the United States Senate had refused to accept. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.

Ashburton Treaty. Negotiated between Great Britain and the United States, 1842, Lord Ashburton acting for the former and Daniel Webster on behalf of the latter. Provided for the settlement of the international boundary between Maine and Canada. Of the territory in dispute, the United States got about seven-twelfths and Canada five-twelfths. Also provided for the determination of the boundary in the St. Mary River and thence to the Lake of the Woods; for the free navigation of the St. John River; for the suppression of the slave trade, and for the extradition of criminals. Bib.: Dent, Last Forty Years; Winsor, Narrative and Critical History, Vol. vii; White, The Ashburton Treaty, in Univ. Mag., October, 1907; The Ashburton Treaty: an Afterword, in Univ. Mag., December, 1908; Houston, Canadian Constitutional Documents; Hertslet, Treaties and Conventions.

Assembly. See Legislative Assembly.

Assiniboia. One of the provisional districts carved out of the North-West Territories, in 1882. Now included in the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, principally in the latter.

Assiniboin Indians. From assini the Cree name for a stone and bwan a native name of the Sioux—or Stone-Sioux. A tribe of the Siouan family; first mentioned in the Jesuit Relation of 1640. They separated from the parent stock early in the seventeenth century, and moved north and north-west to the region about Lake Winnipeg. Later they spread over the country west of Lake Winnipeg, to the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains. La Vérendrye was the first traveller to visit them and describe their manners and customs. Their population was estimated at 8,000 in 1829. One-half this number perished in the smallpox epidemic in 1836. They are now settled on reservations in Alberta, and in Montana. Bib.: Hodge, Handbook of American Indians.

Assiniboine. Mountain peak in Rockies. About thirty miles by trail south of Banff. Known as the “Canadian Matterhorn.” Height, 11,860 feet. Named by Dr. G. M. Dawson in 1884 after the tribe of Indians who hunt in the Rockies. First climbed by Sir James Outram in 1901. Bib.: Outram, In the Heart of the Canadian Rockies.

Assiniboine River. Discovered by La Vérendrye in 1736. Fort Rouge was built at the mouth of the river in that year, as well as Fort La Reine, near the present city of Portage la Prairie. From the latter fort, two years later, La Vérendrye set forth on his memorable journey to the Mandan Indians on the Missouri. Before the close of the century, both the Hudson’s Bay Company and the North West Company had trading establishments at various points on the river. First named Rivière St. Charles; afterwards Rivière des Assiliboilles, and Stone Indian River; finally settling in present form. Bib.: Bryce, Assiniboine River and its Forts (R. S. C., 1892); Ami, Canada and Newfoundland; Burpee, Search for the Western Sea; Hind, Canadian Red River and Assiniboine and Saskatchewan Expeditions.

Association of Canadian Refugees. Organized by William Lyon Mackenzie in 1839, with the purpose of securing the independence of Canada. Meeting held at Rochester, N.Y., and a confidential circular was issued. John Montgomery elected president, and Mackenzie, secretary. Nothing much else was done.

Astor, John Jacob (1763-1848). Born in Waldorf, Germany. Came to America in 1783 and embarked in the fur trade. Founder of Astor Fur Company. He was closely associated with the Canadian fur trade for some years, had a warehouse in Montreal, and had intimate business and social relations with the traders of the North West Company. Later, he became a most aggressive and resourceful rival of the North West Company and the Hudson’s Bay Company. He founded the South West Company in 1808, which later bought out the Mackinac Company. The Pacific Fur Company was also due to his enterprise, and later the American Fur Company. Alexander Ross, of the North West Company, says of Astor and his ambitious plans: “He was to have annihilated the South Company, rivalled the North West Company, extinguished the Hudson’s Bay Company, driven the Russians into the Frozen Ocean, and with the resources of China to have enriched America.” Bib.: Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company; Cyc. Am. Biog.

Astoria. On the Columbia River, near its mouth. Established by Pacific Fur Company, 1811. Turned over to the North West Company, 1813, and renamed Fort George. The scene of Washington Irving’s delightful narrative Astoria. The fort stood on the banks of the Columbia River, near its mouth. Bib.: Franchère, Voyage to the North-West Coast of America; Cox, Adventures on the Columbia River; Ross, Adventures of First Settlers on Columbia River; Henry-Thompson Journals, ed. by Coues; Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company; Bradbury, Travels in the Interior of America in the Years 1809, 1810, and 1811.

Astorians. Name applied to members of the two expeditions fitted out by John Jacob Astor, to found trading establishments at the mouth of the Columbia. One party sailed around the Horn in the Tonquin; the other went overland by way of the Missouri and the Columbia. See also Pacific Fur Company; Tonquin.

Athabaska. One of the provisional districts formed out of the North-West Territories in 1882; area about 122,000 square miles. Now divided between the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta, forming the northern half of each.

Athabaska. Rocky Mountain peak. Name is Algonquin for “place where there are seeds,” originally applied to delta of Athabaska river. In the Freshfield group, north of Rocky Mountain Park. Height, 11,900 feet. First climbed by J. K. Collie and H. Woolley in 1898. Bib.: Stutfield and Collie, Climbs and Explorations in the Canadian Rockies.

Athabaska Lake. A Cree name meaning “muddy plain,” applied originally to the delta formed by the Peace river and the Athabaska where they enter the lake. Known at one time as Lake of the Hills. First discovered by Peter Pond, about 1778. Philip Turnor, for the Hudson’s Bay Company, surveyed and mapped the lake between 1790 and 1792. Both Peter Fidler and David Thompson reached the lake by way of the Reindeer river and lake, Wollaston lake and Black river, the latter in 1796, the former probably a few years later. In 1788 the first trading post on the lake was built by Roderick McKenzie of the North West Company, and named Fort Chipewyan. It was afterwards moved to the north side of the lake. Still maintained by the Hudson’s Bay Company. Bib.: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea; Ami, Canada and Newfoundland; Atlas of Canada.

Athabaska Pass. Discovered by David Thompson of the North West Company, in January, 1811. There is some evidence that it may have been discovered by William Henry, of the same Company, a year or two earlier, acting under Thompson’s instructions. The pass was used for half a century or more by the traders as a route from the Athabaska to the Columbia. Among the famous travellers who used it were Gabriel Franchère, Ross Cox and Alexander Ross, whose books are among the classics of fur trade literature; Father De Smet, the missionary; David Douglas, the botanist, after whom the Douglas fir was named; and Paul Kane, the painter of Indian pictures. Bib.: Burpee, On the Old Athabaska Trail.

Athabaska River. Rises in the watershed range of the Rocky Mountains, close to the head waters of the north branch of the North Saskatchewan, and after a course of 765 miles empties into Athabaska Lake. Discovered, in 1778, by Peter Pond, who built a fur trading post on its banks. Known also at different times as Elk river and Rivière a la Biche. Bib.: Ami, Canada and Newfoundland; Atlas of Canada.

Aube-Rivière, François Louis de Pourroy de l’. Appointed bishop of Quebec, August 16th, 1739. Arrived at Quebec, August 12th, 1740, and died of fever on the twentieth of the same month.

Aubert de Gaspé, Philippe (1786-1871). A French-Canadian writer, whose works are invaluable for the light they throw on the manners and customs of the French in Canada about the time of the Conquest. Bib.: Works: Les Anciens Canadiens, translated into English by Mrs. Pennie, and by C. G. D. Roberts; Mémoires. For biog., see Casgrain, Biographies Canadiennes; Roy, Etude sur “Les Anciens Canadiens” (R. S. C., 1906).

Aubert de la Chesnaye, Charles (1630-1702). Born at Amiens. Came to Canada, 1655. Chief Clerk of the Compagnie des Indes Occidentales, 1665. Engaged in the fur trade at Cataraqui, 1674. In 1677 obtained a grant of Ile Dupas. In 1679 made a visit to Paris, and in 1683 back again at Cataraqui. In 1696 prepared an important memoir on the commerce of the colony. Bib.: Parkman, Old Régime.

Aulneau, Jean-Pierre (1705-1736). Jesuit missionary, with La Vérendrye in his western explorations. Murdered by Sioux on an island in the Lake of the Woods, May, 1736. Bib.: Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America.

Avaugour, Pierre Dubois, Baron d’. Governor of New France, 1661-1663, succeeding D’Argenson. He was at variance with the Jesuits as to the existing liquor laws, which he thought too severe. His is described as the only sober description of the great earthquake of 1663. Bib.: Parkman, Old Régime.

Axel Heiberg Island. In Arctic archipelago, extreme north, west of Ellesmere Island. Named by Sverdrup after one of the patrons of the expedition of 1898-1902.

Aylesworth, Allen Bristol (1854-). Born in Newburg, Ontario. Educated at Newburg High School and at the University of Toronto; studied law and called to the bar of Ontario, 1878; practised his profession in Toronto; appointed one of the British commissioners in connection with the settlement of the Alaska boundary, 1903; elected to the House of Commons, 1905; postmaster-general and minister of labour, 1905; minister of justice, 1906; British agent in connection with the Fisheries case before the Hague Tribunal, 1910. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Aylmer, Matthew, Baron (1842-1923). Born in Melbourne, Quebec. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin. Served with the 7th Royal Fusiliers in the Mediterranean and Canada. Saw service in the Fenian Raids, 1866 and 1870. Became adjutant-general of Canada, 1896; Inspector-general of Canadian forces, 1906. Major-general, 1907. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Aylmer, Matthew Whitworth, Baron (1775-1850). Entered the army, 1787; served in the West Indies, in Holland, and in the Peninsula under Wellington. Reached the full rank of general, 1825; and in 1830 became governor-general of Canada; returned to England, 1835. He was not on very friendly terms with Papineau and his associates, and was bitterly attacked in the Ninety-Two Resolutions. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Dict. Nat. Biog.

Aylwin, Thomas Cushing (1806-1871). Born in Quebec city. Studied law and called to the bar, 1828. First entered public life, 1841, as member for Portneuf. He was opposed to the union of the provinces. After filling the office of solicitor-general in two administrations, raised to the bench, 1848. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years.

Baby, James (1762-1833). Born at Detroit. Educated at Quebec Seminary, and in 1784 travelled in Europe. On his return the following year engaged in the fur trade at Detroit. On the formation of the province of Upper Canada in 1791, appointed a member of the Executive and Legislative Councils. Simcoe made him lieutenant for the county of Kent and judge of the Court of Common Pleas. Commanded the 1st Regiment of Kent militia in the War of 1812. In 1815 succeeded McGill as inspector-general of accounts for Upper Canada. Bib.: Daniel, Nos Gloires Nationales; Morgan, Cel. Can.

Baby, Louis François Georges (1834-1906). Born in Montreal. Studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1857; made a Q. C., 1873. Represented Joliette in Dominion House, 1872-1880; minister of inland revenue, 1878-1880. Appointed puisne judge of Superior Court, 1880; transferred to Queen’s Bench, 1881. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Morgan, Can. Men.

Back, Sir George (1796-1878). Entered the navy as midshipman in 1808; accompanied Franklin on his Arctic expeditions of 1818, 1819-1822, and 1824-1827. Promoted lieutenant, 1822, and commander, 1827. In 1833-1835, led an expedition through what is now northern Canada, to the shores of the Arctic, to ascertain the fate of Captain Ross. The expedition resulted in the exploration of Great Fish River, which was renamed Back River in honour of the explorer. In 1836 explored the Arctic coast, between Regent Inlet and Cape Turnagain. Twice granted the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society; knighted, 1839; promoted admiral, 1857. Bib.: Works: Narrative of the Arctic Land Expedition; Narrative of Expedition in H. M. S. Terror. For biog., see Dict. Nat. Biog.

Badgley, William (1801-1888). Born in Montreal. Studied law and called to the bar, 1823. Member of the Legislative Assembly, 1847-1855; member of the Executive Council for Lower Canada, 1847-1848; appointed attorney-general. Judge of the Superior Court of Lower Canada, 1855-1863; assistant judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench for Quebec, 1863-1864; puisne judge of the same Court, 1866-1874. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.

Baffin, William. Born in London about 1584. Made a voyage of discovery to Greenland in 1612. Three years later sailed as pilot of the Discovery in search of the North-West Passage, traced the coast of Hudson Strait and the western side of Fox Channel as far as Frozen Strait. He was satisfied as a result of this voyage of 1615 that the North-West Passage was not to be found by way of Hudson Bay. In 1616 discovered and made a chart of Smith’s Sound and explored the bay afterwards associated with his name. Killed at the siege of Ormuz, 1622. See also Bylot. Bib.: Voyages of William Baffin, ed. by Markham.

Baffin Island. The great island that lies north of Hudson Strait. Named, like the bay between Greenland and Baffin Island, after William Baffin the explorer and navigator. Fox Land and Cockburn Land occupy respectively the south and north ends of the island. Bib.: Atlas of Canada; White, Place Names in Northern Canada.

Bagot, Sir Charles (1781-1843). Born in England. Educated at Rugby and Oxford; entered Parliament, 1807, becoming under-secretary for foreign affairs. Minister plenipotentiary to France, 1814; and to the United States, 1815-1820. Privy councillor, 1815; ambassador to St. Petersburg, 1820; and to the Hague, 1824. Governor-general of Canada, 1841-1843. His term of office embraced the very important period immediately following the Union of Upper and Lower Canada and the adoption of the principles of responsible government. Died in Kingston soon after retiring from office. Bib.: Richardson, Eight Years in Canada; Kingsford, History of Canada; Dent, Last Forty Years and Can. Por.; Dict. Nat. Biog.

Baie de Chaleur. In west coast of Gulf of St. Lawrence, on boundary between Quebec and New Brunswick. Discovered by Jacques Cartier in 1534, described in his narrative, and so named because he found it as warm there as in sunny Spain.

Bain, James (1842-1908). Born in London, England. Came to Canada with his parents at an early age; educated at the Toronto Academy and the Toronto Grammar School. Spent some years in London engaged in the publishing business. Returned to Canada, 1882; appointed chief librarian of Toronto Public Library, 1883, and built it up into a very strong reference library, particularly rich in Canadian history. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.; ed. Alexander Henry’s Travels and Adventures.

Baldoon. A settlement near Lake St. Clair in Upper Canada, made by Lord Selkirk, 1803, and named after one of his own estates. Some of the Highland settlers he had brought out to Prince Edward Island subsequently removed to Baldoon. Situated in a swampy district, the settlement did not thrive, and the War of 1812 added its hardships to those of fever and ague.

Baldoon Street. Built by Selkirk settlers, from Baldoon to Chatham on the River Thames, early in nineteenth century.

Baldwin, Robert (1804-1858). Born and educated at York, he studied law and was called to the bar in 1825. Politically he was a Moderate Reformer, temperamentally opposed to unconstitutional measures, the dominant idea in his political programme being the adoption of responsible government. Entered public life in 1829, when he was elected to represent York in the Assembly of Upper Canada. Defeated following year. About this time he became closely associated with Francis Hincks. In 1836 appointed a member of the Executive Council by Sir Francis Bond Head. Finding his views hopelessly at variance with those of the governor, he resigned the same year. Baldwin was a consistent reformer, but had no sympathy with the Rebellion of 1837-1838, or with the extreme views of William Lyon Mackenzie and his associates. Appointed by Sydenham solicitor-general of Upper Canada, 1840, in the new Legislature of the United Provinces, and made an executive councillor the following year. Finding the governor-general had no intention of granting self-government, he promptly resigned. With Hincks he entered into an alliance with the moderate party in Lower Canada to work for responsible government. In 1842 on a reconstruction of the government, he became attorney-general for Upper Canada, in what was afterwards known as the Baldwin-LaFontaine administration. Among the important measures introduced this year, was his bill to create a non-sectarian University of Toronto. In 1843 the ministry resigned on the vexed question of ministerial responsibility, and Baldwin returned for a time to the practice of law in Toronto. Here he headed an agitation against the governor, Metcalfe, which led to the formation of the Reform Association, whose main plank was the application of the principles of the constitution of the mother country to Canadian affairs. In 1844 re-elected for York, and moved vote of censure against the governor-general for having violated the principles of the constitution by governing without a ministry. Two years later he made a political tour of the western part of Upper Canada, and in the election of 1847 was again elected for York. The Reform party having swept the country, the second Baldwin-LaFontaine ministry was formed, which remained in power from 1848 to 1851, when Baldwin finally retired from public life. Among the measures for which he was mainly responsible was what is known as the Baldwin Act, which laid the foundation of Ontario’s form of municipal government. It was the culmination of Baldwin’s long fight for responsible government. He also put through the bill for a non-sectarian university which he had first introduced some years before. Baldwin was also largely responsible for certain Acts revising the judicial system of Upper Canada. Although he had opposed the Rebellion, Baldwin supported in the legislature both the Amnesty Act and the Rebellion Losses Bill. After his retirement from public life, he was offered the chief-justiceship of Common Pleas for Upper Canada, and was also nominated for a seat on the Legislative Council, but failing health compelled him to decline both offers. Summing up the joint work of Baldwin and his great French-Canadian colleague LaFontaine, Professor Leacock says: “To find a real basis of political union between French and British Canada, to substitute for the strife of unreconciled races the fellow-citizenship of two great people, and set up in the foremost of British colonies an example of self-government that should prove the lasting basis of empire—this was the completed work by which they had amply earned the rest of eventide after the day of toil.” Bib.: Baldwin, Correspondence (Toronto Public Library MSS); Davin, The Irishman in Canada; Taylor, Brit. Am.; Dent, Can. Por.; and Last Forty Years; Leacock, Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks; Hincks, Political History of Canada.

Baldwin, William Warren. Father of Robert Baldwin. Born in Ireland. Came to Canada 1798, and finally settled in York, now known as Toronto, where he practised medicine. He subsequently opened a classical school; and later engaged in legal practice. President of the Constitutional Reform Society, 1836. Represented Norfolk in the Legislature of Upper Canada. Member of Legislative Council, 1843. Died, 1844. Bib.: Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.; Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years; Scadding, Toronto of Old.

Bank of Montreal. The first bank in Canada, founded in 1817. Began with a paid-up capital of $350,000. In 1925 capital $29,906,000, with a reserve of the same amount. Over 600 branches. It has counted among its presidents such eminent Canadians as John Molson, Peter McGill, Lord Mount Stephen and Lord Strathcona. Closely associated with the financing of such great enterprises as the Canadian Pacific Railway. Absorbed the Ontario Bank, Bank of British North America, the Merchants Bank, and Molson’s Bank. Bib.: Centenary of the Bank of Montreal, 1817-1917.

Bank of Nova Scotia. Established, 1832. Authorized stock, £100,000. In 1925 $10,000,000, with a reserve of $19,500,000. Absorbed a number of other banks in Nova Scotia and elsewhere. Branches throughout Canada and the West Indies, as well as in parts of South America. Bib.: History of the Bank of Nova Scotia.

Bank of Upper Canada. Established, 1823, with a capital of $41,364, which had increased in 1859 to $3,126,250. Its headquarters were in Toronto. After a long, prosperous career the bank stopped payment in 1866, the chief cause being the collapse in real estate in Canada West in 1857-1858. Bib.: See Banking.

Banking. The first bank established in Canada was the Bank of Montreal, which dates from the year 1817. The Bank of Quebec was established in 1818; and the Bank of Canada the same year. All three were chartered in 1822. A Banking Act was passed in 1841, providing a uniform system of banking. The Act of 1850 prohibited banks other than those incorporated by Parliament or royal charter from issuing notes. It also provided for a deposit with the government to be held as a guarantee; also for bank statistics. Other provisions designed to place banking on a more secure footing were incorporated in the Act of 1871. Further banking legislation was passed in 1881 and in 1890. The tendency in recent years has been to consolidate the banking business of the country in a few powerful banks with many branches. See also under names of individual banks. Bib.: Johnson, First Things in Canada; Shortt, Early History of Canadian Banking; History of Canadian Currency, Banking and Exchange; Breckenridge, Canadian Banking System; Hague, Banking and Commerce; Historical Sketch of Canadian Banking in Canada: An Ency., vol. 1; Walker, History of Banking in Canada.

Banks Island. Westernmost island of the Arctic Archipelago. Named by Parry in 1820 after Sir Joseph Banks (1744-1820), president of the Royal Society for forty-two years. His name was also given to an island in Hecate Strait, coast of British Columbia. Bib.: Atlas of Canada; White, Place Names in Northern Canada.

Banner. Newspaper, published at Toronto. Founded in 1883 by Peter and George Brown. Fought for the principles of responsible government. Name subsequently changed to the Globe. See Globe.

Baptist Church. Like several other religious denominations in Canada, it had its origin in Nova Scotia. Some Baptists were living in Lunenburg as early as 1753. In 1800 the first Baptist Association was formed at Granville, Nova Scotia, and by 1850 there were Baptist Associations in many parts of the province. In 1828 the Nova Scotia Baptist Educational Society was established. First established in Fredericton, N.B., 1813. The first church was built in Montreal, 1830; and in 1834 the Baptist Seminary of New Brunswick was founded at Fredericton. In 1852 the Baptist Missionary Society of Canada was established. Since then the Baptists have grown rapidly in all the provinces, and several Baptist colleges and institutions have been established, notably Acadia and McMaster Universities (q.v.). The Baptist Church was organized in British Columbia in 1877. Strength in Canada by the census of 1921, 421,731. Bib.: Wells, History of the Baptist Denomination in Canada in Canada: An Ency., vol. 3; Hill, Forty Years with the Baptist Ministers and Churches of the Maritime Provinces of Canada.

Baranof, Alexander Andrevitch (1747-1819). Governor of Russian America. Had been manager of a glass factory in Irkutsk, Siberia; grew tired of the monotonous though profitable business and engaged in the fur trade of eastern Siberia. Appointed governor of the principal Russian trading company in America, 1790. Nine years later, the different companies were united, and Baranof moved his headquarters from Kodiak to New Archangel (Sitka), where he built a strong fort, with a shipyard, foundry, churches and hospitals. Even a library and picture-gallery were afterwards added to this little outpost of Russian civilization. The Russian-American Fur Company established trading posts at different points, and came into indirect contact with the North West Company, and later into more direct relations with the Hudson’s Bay Company. Eventually the immense territory they occupied, including the long coastal strip afterwards known as the Panhandle, was sold to the United States, and Canada lost the coast north of Portland Canal. In 1818 Baranof sailed for home, and died at sea on the voyage. Bib.: Laut, Vikings of the Pacific.

Barclay, Robert H. Born in Scotland. Took part in the battle of Trafalgar. Sent to Canada, and commander of British naval force on Lake Erie in 1813. On September 10th, 1813, defeated by the American fleet under Perry. Subsequently court-martialled, but acquitted. His defeat was due not to his own incapacity but to the fact that he was distinctly inferior in men, guns and equipment to the Americans, for which conditions not he but his superior officers were to blame. Died 1837. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Cyc. Am. Biog.; Lucas, Canadian War of 1812. See also War of 1812.

Barclay, Thomas (1753-1830). Born in New York. A graduate of Columbia College, and studied law under John Jay. In 1775 served in the British army during the American Revolution, and in 1777 became major. At the end of the war moved to Nova Scotia; entered the House of Assembly, and for some time Speaker. Appointed adjutant-general of militia; served as a commissioner under Jay’s Treaty; appointed consul-general at New York for the Northern and Eastern states. Commissioner under fourth and fifth articles of the Treaty of Ghent. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; Sabine, Loyalists.

Barker, William George (1894-). Went overseas with 1st C.M. Rifles, 1915. Transferred to Royal Air Force same year. Officially credited with fifty-two enemy machines. Decorated with Victoria Cross, D.S.O. with one Bar, Military Cross with two Bars, Italian Silver Medal for Valour, French Croix de Guerre. Promoted Captain, Major and Lieutenant-Colonel. Served in France and Italy.

Barkley, Charles William (1759-1832). Served in the East India Company; sailed on a trading voyage for sea-otter skins to the North-West Coast, 1787. Brought his bride with him, the first white woman on the North-West Coast. Discovered and named Juan de Fuca Strait the same year, and carried his cargo of furs to China. In 1792 made another voyage to the North-West Coast, again accompanied by his wife, who kept interesting journals of both voyages. Died at North Crescent, Hartford. Barkley Sound, Vancouver Island, discovered and named by him. Bib.: Walbran, British Columbia Coast Names.

Baronets of Nova Scotia. An order created by James I, in 1625, for the purpose of “advancing the plantation of Nova Scotia.” The scheme, which King James had deeply at heart, was designed to assist Sir William Alexander in his ambitious plans of colonization in the New World, by offering a special inducement to men of position in Scotland to take tracts of land in Nova Scotia, and to bring out numbers of colonists to settle upon them. See also Stirling. Bib.: Duncan, Royal Province of New Scotland and her Baronets; Bourinot, Builders of Nova Scotia; Patterson, Sir William Alexander (R. S. C., 1892); Mackenzie, Baronets of Nova Scotia (R. S. C., 1901); Royal Letters, Charters and Tracts Relating to the Colonisation of Nova Scotia and the Institution of the Order of Knights Baronet of Nova Scotia; Kirke, The First English Conquest of Canada.

Barré, Isaac (1726-1802). Born in Ireland. Served under Wolfe against Rochefort in 1757, and at Quebec in 1759, being at Wolfe’s side when he fell. Entered Parliament, 1761, and a member until 1790. In 1763-1764 adjutant-general and governor of Stirling; in 1764-1768, vice-treasurer of Ireland and a privy councillor; in 1782, treasurer of the navy. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.

Barren Grounds. The region of northern Canada, lying between the Mackenzie River and Hudson Bay, and from the northern timber-line to the Arctic. First visited by Samuel Hearne in 1770-1772. Later explorers who traversed portions of the country are Franklin, in 1821; Back, in 1833; Dease and Simpson, in 1839; Richardson, in 1848; and Anderson, in 1855. Within more recent years, Warburton Pike, J. B. Tyrrell, J. W. Tyrrell, D. T. Hanbury and Caspar Whitney have explored parts of the Barren Grounds. Bib.: Hearne, Journey to the Northern Ocean; Franklin, Narrative; Back, Arctic Land Expedition; Simpson, North Coasts of America; Richardson, Arctic Searching Expedition; Anderson, Descent of Great Fish River, in Royal Geog. Soc. Journal, 1856 and 1857; Pike, Barren Grounds; Tyrrell, Across the Sub-Arctics; Hanbury, Northland of Canada; Whitney, On Snowshoes to the Barren Grounds.

Barrie on Lake Simcoe. Town of Ontario. Named after Commodore Robert Barrie, who was stationed at Kingston during the war of 1812-1814, and for some years thereafter. In 1823 he is mentioned as acting commissioner of the navy at Kingston, and in 1828 made an official visit to York in H. M. Schooner Cockburn. Sir John Franklin visited Barrie in 1819 on his way overland to the Arctic.

Barron, Colin. Corporal, 3rd Battalion, C.E.F. Awarded the Victoria Cross for conspicuous bravery at Passchendaele Ridge, November 6th, 1917. He rushed enemy machine-guns single-handed, killed four of the crew and captured the remainder. Then turned one of the guns on the retiring enemy, his action producing far-reaching results and enabling the advance to be continued.

Barter. This primitive means of exchange was in use in the early days of New France. Men bartered a lot of ground for two cows and a pair of stockings, or an ox for a quantity of grain. Similar conditions prevailed in the pioneer days of Upper Canada, and in Western Canada. Barter was also the basis of the fur trade—goods for furs, but here a form of currency was afterwards introduced, the unit being the assumed value of a beaver skin, represented by metal or other tokens. Both the Hudson’s Bay Company and the North-West Company used copper tokens, which are now very rare. Only seven of the N. W. C. Beaver tokens are known to exist. Plus was a term expressing the monetary unit of the fur trade and represented one good beaver skin. See Masson, Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest, I, 7. See also Currency.

Barthe, J. G. Took part in the Rebellion of 1837-1838. Afterwards became editor of L’Avenir du Canada. Member for Yamaska in Canadian Assembly, 1841-1844.

Basques. A pre-Aryan race, occupying the border-land between France and Spain. Assertions have repeatedly been made that they made voyages to America, and discovered the Gulf of St. Lawrence, before Cartier, and even before Cabot, but these have never been substantiated. All the evidence goes to show that they frequented the Newfoundland fisheries in the sixteenth century, but not earlier. Bib.: Dawson, The St. Lawrence Basin; Reade, The Basques in North America (R. S. C., 1888); Howley, Old Basque Tombstones at Placentia.

Bathurst, Henry, third Earl (1762-1834). Succeeded to the title, 1794. Entered Parliament, 1793; president of the board of trade, 1807; foreign secretary, 1809; and secretary for war and the colonies, 1812. Directed Britain’s colonial policy during the important administrations of Prevost, Sherbrooke and Dalhousie, in Lower Canada, and of Brock, Gore and Maitland, in Upper Canada. Lord president of the Council, 1828-1830; one of the original members of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, 1833. As colonial secretary he was involved in the Clergy Reserves question. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.; Courts and Cabinets of George IV.

Bathurst Island. One of the Arctic Archipelago. North of Melville Sound. Discovered by Parry in 1819. Named after the Earl of Bathurst, then Secretary for War and the Colonies.

Battle of the Plains. See Plains of Abraham.

Battleford. A town on the North Saskatchewan, at the mouth of the Battle River. Founded in 1875; incorporated as a town in 1904. In the Rebellion of 1885, it was threatened by Poundmaker’s warriors, and relieved by Otter’s Column. The Battle of Cut Knife Hill was fought about thirty-five miles from Battleford. See also Riel Rebellion, 1885.

Battles. See Amiens; Batoche; Beaver Dam; Bourlon Wood; Cambrai; Chateauguay; Cook’s Mills; Crysler’s Farm; Cut Knife Hill; Drocourt-Quéant; Duck Lake; Eccles Hill; Festubert; Fish Creek; Fort George; Frenchman’s Creek; Givenchy; Hill Seventy; Israel’s Poort; Lacolle; Lake George; Lens; Loos; Lundy’s Lane; Mafeking; Monongahela; Odelltown; Paardeberg; Passchendaele; Plains of Abraham; Poplar Grove; Queenston Heights; St. Eloi; Ste. Foy; St. Julien; Sanctuary Wood; Seven Oaks; Somme; Thames; Ticonderoga; Vimy Ridge; Windmill Point; Ypres.

Bay of Quinte. See Quinte, Bay of.

Bayfield, Henry Wolsey (1795-1885). Born in Hull, England. Entered the navy, 1806. Had a distinguished career in the navy, and served in Canadian waters, 1814. Subsequently assisted in the survey of the upper St. Lawrence, and appointed Admiralty surveyor, 1817. During his tenure of office surveyed Lakes Erie, Huron, and Superior, with their connecting waters, and almost the whole eastern coast of Canada, including Labrador. Made vice-admiral, 1856, and admiral, 1867. Resided for fourteen years in Quebec, when he removed to Charlottetown. Received the thanks of the Parliament of Canada for his services, 1854. Died in Charlottetown.

Baynes, Edward. Born in England. Served in the West Indies, at the Cape, in the East Indies, and in Malta. From 1794 to 1806 aide-de-camp to Sir James Craig, and in 1807 adjutant-general of the forces in Canada. In the War of 1812 served on the Niagara frontier. Died, 1829. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; Edgar, General Brock.

Béarn Regiment. Established, 1595, and served with distinction in a number of European campaigns. Landed at Quebec, June, 1755, with the regiment of Guienne and a portion of the Languedoc battalion, and added to its laurels at Fort Frontenac, Niagara, Oswego, Carillon, Fort William Henry, and Ticonderoga. In 1759, on the Plains of Abraham, it occupied the place of honour, having been stationed by Montcalm in the centre of his line. Bib.: Doughty, Siege of Quebec; Wood, The Fight for Canada.

Beauharnois, Charles de la Boische, Marquis de (1670-1749). Entered French navy, 1686, and rose to the rank of admiral in 1748. In 1726 appointed governor of New France, which position he held until 1747. Took a deep interest in Western exploration, and was a firm friend of La Vérendrye. Reputed to be a natural son of Louis XIV. After his return to France he was made lieutenant-general of naval forces. The first husband of the Empress Josephine was descended from his family. Bib.: Parkman, Half-Century of Conflict; Roy, Intendants de la Nouvelle France (R. S. C., 1903).

Beauharnois, François de (1665-1746). Born in France. Became intendant of New France in 1702 and held the position until 1705. In 1707 granted the barony of Beauville. Appointed intendant de l’armée navale, 1706; intendant of marines, 1710; intendant générale des armées navales, 1739. Bib.: Roy, Intendants de la Nouvelle France (R. S. C., 1903).

Beauport. A village two miles below Quebec. In the Siege of Quebec, 1759, it was the headquarters of the intendant and commissary of stores. Defended by an intrenched camp. In the panic following the Battle of the Plains and the death of Montcalm, the camp was abandoned with all its stores of food and equipment.

Beauséjour. A fort built by the French in 1750-1751, on Chignecto Bay, near Beaubassin, one of the principal Acadian settlements, and three miles from the British Fort Lawrence. A little tidal stream, the Missaguash, ran between—nominally marking the dividing line between British and French territory. The fort was captured by the British under Monckton, in 1755, and renamed Fort Cumberland. The ruins, still in a fair state of preservation in part, are looked after by the National Sites and Monuments Board of Canada. Bib.: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe; Bradley, Fight with France; Hannay, History of Acadia; Murdoch, History of Nova Scotia; Campbell, History of Nova Scotia; Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia, ed. by Akins.

Beaven, Robert. Born, 1836. Went to British Columbia and engaged in gold-mining. Worked for Confederation and was secretary of Confederate League. Sat for Victoria in British Columbia Legislature, 1871-1894. Chief commissioner of lands and works, 1872; minister of finance and agriculture, 1878; premier, 1882, resigned, 1883. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Beaver. First steamer on the Pacific, 1835. Built in Great Britain. Her machinery was installed after she arrived at Fort Vancouver. She sailed up and down the north-west coast of North America for forty-three years, and was finally wrecked at the entrance to Burrard Inlet in 1888. Bib.: McCain, History of the S.S. Beaver; Coats and Gosnell, Sir James Douglas.

Beaverbrook, Sir Max Aitken, Baron (1879-). Born in Vaughan, Ontario. Engaged for some years in the promotion of large industrial organizations in Canada. Went to England and was elected to the Imperial Parliament for Ashton-under-Lyne, and became Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. During the war was attached to the Canadian Expeditionary Force as “eye-witness” with rank of lieutenant-colonel, and general representative of the Dominion government with Canadian troops at the front. Prepared first two volumes of Canada in Flanders, a semi-official Canadian history of the war. A trustee of the Imperial War Museum, and largely instrumental in securing for Canada material for both a war museum and a very comprehensive collection of war pictures. Minister of information in the British government during the war. Created a baronet, 1916, and a baron, 1917.

Beaver Club. Founded in Montreal in 1775 by the partners of the North West Company. It opened with nineteen members, and at one time the registry showed ninety-three members, with eleven honorary members. Among them were such famous fur traders and explorers as Alexander Mackenzie and his cousin Roderick, the three Frobishers, Alexander Henry and his nephew of the same name, Simon McTavish, James Finlay, Simon Fraser and John Stuart. The motto of the club was “Fortitude in Distress.” No one was admitted who had not made a journey to the North-West and wintered there. The club entertained many distinguished guests, including Sir John Franklin, Lord Selkirk, Washington Irving, and the Earl of Dalhousie. Disbanded in 1824 after the union of the North West and Hudson’s Bay Companies. An effort to revive it in 1827 proved unsuccessful. Bib.: Hetherington, Canada’s First Social Club, in Univ. Mag., April, 1910; Read, Masters of the Wilderness; Burpee, The Beaver Club, in Annual Report of Can. Hist. Assn., 1924.

Beaver Dam, Battle of. In War of 1812. FitzGibbon commanded a detachment of the 49th Regiment, about fifty men, with several hundred Indians. Boerstler, with a party of 600 men, advanced from Fort George by way of Queenston to surprise him, but was ambushed by a body of Indians. FitzGibbon, who had been warned of the approach of Boerstler by Laura Secord, advanced with his men of the 49th, made very clever and effective use of his Indians who kept firing on the enemy from different points, and demanded the surrender of the Americans, who, believing themselves surrounded by a superior force, capitulated. The engagement took place June 26th, 1813. See also War of 1812; FitzGibbon; Laura Secord. Bib.: Lucas, Canadian War of 1812; Hannay, War of 1812; FitzGibbon, A Veteran of 1812; Curzon, Laura Secord, the Heroine of 1812; Cruikshank, The Fight in the Beechwoods; Thompson, Jubilee History of Thorold.

Bédard, Elzéar. For some years a member of the Assembly of Lower Canada. Moved the celebrated Ninety-Two Resolutions, 1837. Puisne judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1837; suspended, but afterwards reinstated. Died, 1849. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Christie, History of Lower Canada.

Bédard, Pierre Stanislas (1762-1829). Educated at the Seminary of Quebec; studied law, and appointed advocate, 1790. Elected for Northumberland to the first Legislature of Lower Canada, 1792. In 1806, with a number of other French Canadians in the Assembly, founded Le Canadien, to represent the views of the popular party. Sir James Craig, the governor, considered him a dangerous revolutionist. In 1810 the paper was seized, and, although he claimed liberty of the press, Bédard and his associates were arrested on a charge of treasonable practices. Released the following year. In 1812 appointed judge of the District Court of Three Rivers. Retired in 1829 on account of ill health. Bib.: Parent, Pierre Bédard et Ses Deux Fils in Journal d’Instruction Publique, 1859; Christie, History of Lower Canada; De Gaspé, Memoires; Dionne, Pierre Bédard et Ses Fils; Dionne, Pierre Bédard et Son Temps (R. S. C., 1898).

Beechey, Frederick William (1796-1856). A lieutenant in Buchan’s voyage to Spitzbergen, 1818, and Parry’s first voyage to the Arctic, 1819-1820. Sailed as commander of the Blossom by Bering Strait to Point Barrow, 1825-1828, discovering Arctic coast between Icy Cape and Point Barrow. Became president of the Royal Geographical Society, 1856. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Bering Strait; Bib.: White, Place Names, Northern Canada.

Beer, Henry (1835-1886). Born in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island. Elected to the Assembly, 1870; a member of the ministry, 1872; Speaker of the Assembly, 1877; mayor of Charlottetown, 1885-1886.

Begbie, Sir Matthew Baillie (1819-1894). Born in Edinburgh; educated at Cambridge; and called to the English bar in 1844. Judge of the colony of British Columbia and judge of the Vice-admiralty Court, 1858-1870. He made a notable journey to the Upper Fraser in 1859. Established a reputation among the unruly elements of the Gold Rush for fearlessness and unflinching justice. Chief-justice of British Columbia, 1870-1894, and also judge of the Admiralty district of British Columbia, 1891-1894. Knighted, 1875. Bib.: Begg, History of British Columbia; Nicolls, Sir Matthew Baillie Begbie; Coats and Gosnell, Sir James Douglas.

Begg, Alexander. Two historians of this name, or rather these names, have added to our knowledge of the Canadian West. The first was born in Scotland in 1825, came to Canada and engaged in journalism. In 1869 collector of customs at Fort Garry and accompanied William McDougall to Red River that year, and in later years acted as immigration commissioner, first, for Ontario and, later, for British Columbia. Published in 1894 the History of British Columbia. The second was born in Quebec in 1840. In 1867 he became a pioneer in opening up trade between Eastern Canada and Manitoba. Took an active part in the movement to secure representative institutions for the western colony. In 1878 became sergeant-at-arms of the Manitoba Legislature, and from 1878 to 1884 deputy provincial treasurer. Afterwards general immigration agent for the Canadian Pacific railway. Author of The Creation of Manitoba; A Story of Saskatchewan; Ten Years in Winnipeg; History of the North-West. Bib.: For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men.

Bégin, Louis Nazaire (1840-1925). Born in Lévis, P.Q. Professor of ecclesiastical history Laval University, 1868-1884. Bishop of Chicoutimi, 1888-1891. Coadjutor to Cardinal Taschereau, 1891-1898. Archbishop of Quebec, 1898. Cardinal, 1914.

Begon, Michel, Sieur de la Picardiére (1674-1740). Filled the office of inspector-general of marines in France, 1707-1710. In the latter year appointed intendant of Canada, but did not arrive in Quebec until 1712. Returned to France, 1726, and for some years acted as intendant of justice in Normandy. Bib.: Roy, Intendants de la Nouvelle France (R. S. C., 1903).

Belcher, Sir Edward (1799-1877). Entered the navy in 1812. From 1836 to 1842 he was engaged in exploring the western coast of America. Sent out in 1852 as commander of the expedition in search of Sir John Franklin. Between that year and 1854 Melville Island was examined and all the land north and north-west of it, including Prince Patrick Island, on which cairns were found left by McClintock; also Wellington Channel. A party was sent to relieve McClure. The ships were abandoned in the ice about longitude 101°. Bib.: Last of the Arctic Voyages; Smith, Arctic Expeditions.

Belcher, Jonathan (1711-1776). Second son of Governor Belcher of Massachusetts. Educated at Harvard University, Cambridge, and in England; called to the English bar. Appointed chief-justice of Nova Scotia, 1754. President of the Council of Nova Scotia and administrator of the government, 1760. Chiefly instrumental in securing for Nova Scotia a representative Assembly. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia.

Bell, Alexander Graham (1847-1922). Born in Edinburgh, Scotland. Educated at Edinburgh University and London University; came to Canada in 1870. Professor of physiology in Boston University, 1872. Patented his invention of the telephone, 1876; and also invented the photophone, induction balance, telephone probe, and graphophone. Made his first experiments with the telephone at Brantford, Ont. In 1898 appointed regent of the Smithsonian Institution. In 1909-1910 engaged in aeroplane experiments. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Who’s Who, 1910; Addresses before Canadian Club of Ottawa, 1910.

Belleau, Sir Narcisse (1808-1894). Born in the city of Quebec and educated there. In 1852 a member of the Legislative Council, and in 1857-1862 Speaker. Mayor of Quebec, 1860, when King Edward VIII, as Prince of Wales, visited Canada, and knighted on the occasion. In 1862 appointed minister of agriculture in the Cartier-Macdonald ministry; and in 1865 premier and receiver-general in a coalition government. Appointed lieutenant-governor of the province of Quebec, 1867; resigned in 1873. Bib.: Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.; Taylor, Brit. Am.; Dent, Last Forty Years.

Belle Isle, Strait of. Between Newfoundland and the mainland. Named probably after Belle-Ile-en-Mer, an island in the Atlantic off the coast of France. Jacques Cartier was, so far as is known, the discoverer of the Straits, having sailed through in 1534 and again in 1535 and 1541.

Belleville. A very picturesque town of Ontario on the Bay of Quinté. Founded by Captain Myers, in 1790. Incorporated as a town in 1834, as a city, 1877. There was an open riot in this Loyalist town, in 1849, over the Rebellion Losses Bill.

Bellew, Edward Donald. Captain, 7th Battalion, C.E.F. Awarded the Victoria Cross for most conspicuous bravery and devotion to duty. At Keerselaere, in the Ypres Salient, April 24th, 1915, he held up the enemy’s attack with a machine-gun. When his ammunition failed, and the enemy rushed the position, he smashed his machine-gun with a rifle, and, fighting to the last, was taken prisoner.

Bell-Smith, Frederic Marlett (1846-1923). Born in London, England. Educated there, and came to Canada, 1866. Founder and first president of the Canadian Society of Artists, Montreal, 1867; director of Alma College, 1881; member of the Royal Canadian Academy of Artists, 1888; director of the Toronto Art School, 1889-1891. President of the Ontario Society of Artists. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Belmont, François Vachon de. Came to Canada from France in 1680, and joined the Seminary of St. Sulpice at Montreal, of which he was superior, 1698-1732. Died the latter year. Left a History of Canada, which was published in the first series of Historical Documents of the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec.

Bering, Vitus (1681-1741). Born at Horsens, Denmark. Joined the Russian navy in 1704; and in 1725 sent by Peter the Great to explore the waters east of Kamchatka and examine the American coast. After a three-years’ journey overland, reached the eastern shore of Siberia, built vessels there, and in 1728 followed the coast north to the Arctic, proving that Asia and America were not united. In 1733 set out again, on the long overland journey, hampered with a huge retinue, and it was not until 1741 that his ships were ready at Petropaulovsk. Sailed to the east, reached and explored the American coast, and was wrecked on what was afterwards known as Bering Island, where he died, December 8th, 1741. Bib.: Lauridsen, Vitus Bering; Muller, Voyages from Asia to America; Laut, Vikings of the Pacific; Golder, Bering’s Voyages.

Bering Sea Question. Arose out of a dispute as to the seal-fisheries of Bering Sea. Several Canadian sealers were seized by the United States in 1886, on the plea that these waters constituted a mare clausum, or closed sea. Similar seizures were made in 1887 and 1889. Finally the British and United States governments agreed to submit the question to arbitration. The commission met at Paris in 1893. Lord Hannen and Sir John Thompson represented British interests; the United States was represented by Judge Harlan and Senator Morgan. The other arbitrators were Marquis Visconti Venosta of Italy, Gregora W. Gram of Sweden, and Baron de Courcel of Belgium, who presided. The decision was in favour of Great Britain, and contrary to the claim of the United States to jurisdiction over the waters of Bering Sea and the seals visiting the coasts and islands of Alaska. Regulations were provided for the better protection of the fisheries; and the United States was required to compensate the Canadian sealers for the unlawful seizure of their vessels. Bib.: Report of Bering Sea Commission.

Berkeley, George Cranfield (1753-1818). Entered the navy, 1766; accompanied Cook in survey of coast of Newfoundland and Gulf of St. Lawrence, 1766-1769; and was on the Victory at Ushant, 1778. In 1786 surveyor-general of ordnance, 1786; and vice-admiral on the Halifax station, 1805-1807, during which time occurred the affair between the Chesapeake and the Leopard. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.

Berlin. See Kitchener.

Berlin Decrees. Issued by Napoleon, November, 1806, to the following effect: The British Isles were in a state of blockade; intercourse with them was prohibited; all British subjects within French authority were to be held as prisoners of war; all British property, private and public, was declared to be prize of war; also merchandise from Britain; merchants whose property had been captured by British cruisers were to be indemnified from the product of such seizures; no British ships were to be admitted into any port of France, or her allies; every vessel eluding this rule was to be confiscated. The object of the decrees was to close the continent against British commerce. The British government retaliated by issuing an order-in-council, refusing to neutrals the right of trading from one hostile port to another. Bib.: Dict. Eng. Hist.; Green, Short History of the English People; Kingsford, History of Canada.

Bermuda. This group of islands in mid-Atlantic was discovered about the beginning of the sixteenth century, and its settlement dates from the early part of the next century. It has for a very long time been associated in many ways with Canada and particularly with Nova Scotia. Bermuda is the first stop in the steamship route between Halifax and the West Indies. Halifax and Bermuda were connected by cable in 1890. From 1825 to 1839 Bermuda ecclesiastically came under the jurisdiction of the Anglican bishop of Nova Scotia. From time to time unofficial proposals have been put forward for the annexation of these islands either to Nova Scotia or to Canada, but the Bermudians have preferred to paddle their own canoe. Bermuda is included in the last trade agreement between Canada and the West Indies. Bib.: Lefroy, Memorials of Bermuda; Ogilvy, Bermuda: past and present; Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies.

Bernard, Hewitt (1825-1893). Entered the Canadian public service, 1858; deputy minister of justice, 1867; resigned, 1876. Acted as confidential secretary to the Quebec Conference on Confederation, 1866, and as secretary to the Confederation delegates in London the following year. In 1872 created I. C.; and the same year made C. M. G. In 1878 appointed assistant commissioner to France and Spain to negotiate commercial treaties. Aide-de-camp to Lord Monck, 1868, and to Lord Stanley, 1888. Bib.: Pope, Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald.

Bernier, Joseph Elzéar (1852-). Went to sea, and became master of a brigantine at seventeen. Has given particular study to Arctic exploration, and lectured on subject in Europe and America. Planned a Canadian Polar expedition, but Peary’s discovery put an end to it. Has made several voyages to the Arctic Seas on behalf of Canadian government, for purposes of exploration and to take formal possession for the Dominion of Arctic Islands. See also Arctic Archipelago. Bib.: Report of Dominion Government Expedition to Arctic Islands 1906-1907.

Bernières, Henri de (1635-1700). Born in France. Came to Canada with Laval in 1659. Curé of Quebec, 1660-1687; and grand-vicar of the bishop of Quebec. First superior of the Seminary of Quebec, 1663, holding that position till 1688 and from 1693 to 1697. Bib.: Jesuit Relations, ed. by Thwaites; Gosselin, Henri de Bernières.

Berthier, Alexandre (1638-1709). Born in France. Came to Canada in 1665; and in 1666 commandant at Fort St. Jean. Led expeditions against the Iroquois. In 1672 granted the seigniory of Berthier in Bellechasse County, Quebec. Bib.: Charlevoix, History of New France.

Bethune, Alexander Neil (1800-1879). Born in Glengarry, Ontario. In 1823 ordained deacon, and in 1824, priest. In 1847 archdeacon of York (Toronto), and in 1867 consecrated coadjutor-bishop of Toronto; succeeded to the bishopric on the death of Bishop Strachan. Bib.: Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.; Cyc. Am. Biog.; Mockridge, The Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland.

Bethune, John (1751-1815). Born in Scotland. Emigrated in his early years to South Carolina, and was chaplain of the loyal militia. Taken prisoner at the battle of Cross Creek, in 1776. Afterwards chaplain to 84th Regiment. In 1786 resided in Montreal; minister of the Presbyterian Church there; afterwards appointed to a mission in Glengarry. He was the first Presbyterian minister in Upper Canada. Died at Williamstown. Bib.: Taylor, Brit. Am.; Macdonell, Sketches Illustrating the Early Settlement and History of Glengarry in Canada.

Biard, Pierre (1565-1622). Came to Port Royal in 1611, with Massé—the first of their order in New France. The relations of the Jesuits with Poutrincourt and his son Biencourt were far from cordial; little or no progress was made with the conversion of the Micmacs; and in 1613 Biard sailed with Massé for Mount Desert, with an expedition sent out by Madame de Guercheville. They had hardly begun the new settlement, when Argall swooped down, seized their ship, plundered their property, and carried Biard and some of his companions prisoners to Virginia. Argall brought the Jesuit back with him to Acadia the same year; the vessel in which he sailed was carried out to sea, and after a series of adventures Biard finally reached France and remained there. Bib.: Biard, Relation; Carayon, Première Mission des Jesuites au Canada; Parkman, Pioneers of France; Campbell, Pioneer Priests.

Bibaud, Michel (1782-1857). An early French-Canadian historian. Educated at the College of St. Raphael. Bib.: Works: Epitres, Satires, Chansons Epigrammes, et autre Pièces de Vers; Histoire du Canada et des Canadiens sous la Domination Anglaise. For biog., see Morgan, Cel. Can.

Bidwell, Marshall Spring (1799-1872). Born in New England. Came to Canada with his father, 1812, and practised law. In 1824-1835 a member of the Upper Canada Assembly; in 1829 elected Speaker of the House, and re-elected, 1835. One of the leaders of the popular party of Upper Canada. His outspoken sympathy with the Rebellion of 1837-1838 resulted in his banishment. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por. and Upper Canadian Rebellion; Morgan, Cel. Can.; Cyc. Am. Biog.; Davin, The Irishman in Canada.

Biencourt de Poutrincourt, Charles (1583-1638?). Son of Jean de Biencourt. Accompanied his father to Port Royal in 1605. Returned to France in 1610; made vice-admiral in the seas of New France, and, somewhat unwillingly, brought with him to Acadia in 1611 the Jesuits Biard and Massé. While absent from Port Royal, the fort was attacked and burnt by Argall in 1613. Biencourt partially rebuilt Port Royal, and was still there in 1618. Returned to France some time before 1621, and appointed director of the Royal Academy of Paris, which position he held up to the time of his death. Bib.: Parkman, Pioneers of France; Patterson, Last Days of Charles de Biencourt (R. S. C., 1896).

Biencourt de Poutrincourt, Jean de, Baron de Saint Just (1557-1615). Had won distinction as a soldier in the service of France; and in 1604 sailed with De Monts and Champlain to Acadia. Was so charmed with Port Royal that he determined to make it his home. De Monts made him a grant of the lands about Annapolis Basin, which the king confirmed. Went back to France and brought out his family to the new settlement. Accompanied Champlain in his exploration of the Bay of Fundy and the North Atlantic coast. Jesuit missionaries were sent out to Port Royal, whom Poutrincourt, although a good Roman Catholic, found far from congenial. Their relations became more and more strained, and when Poutrincourt sailed to France in 1613, the Jesuits succeeded in having him thrown into prison. Regained his liberty and returned to Acadia, but found Port Royal in ashes. Returned to France, and fell in the attack on Méry. Bib.: Parkman, Old Régime. See also Lescarbot; Champlain; De Monts.

Bienville, Jean Baptiste le Moyne, sieur de (1680-1768). Son of Charles Le Moyne, and brother of Iberville. Joined war party against Schenectady in 1689. Accompanied Iberville to Hudson Bay in 1697, and took part in the capture of Fort Nelson and the defeat of the English fleet. The following year sailed with his brother to the mouth of the Mississippi, where they laid the foundations of the colony of Louisiana. After the death of Iberville, became governor of the colony, and remained there for thirty-five years. Founded the city of New Orleans, and laboured unceasingly to advance the interests of Louisiana. Retired to France, and died in Paris. Bib.: King, Jean Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville; Reed, The First Great Canadian; Margry, Découvertes des Français. See also Iberville.

Big Bear. An Indian chief who with his braves took part on the rebel side in the Saskatchewan Rebellion of 1885. Responsible for the massacre at Frog Lake (q.v.). Attacked Fort Pitt and took the Hudson’s Bay Company’s agent and his family prisoners. Managed to elude General Strange, but finally gave himself up to the Mounted Police. Tried but pardoned.

Bigot, François. Born at Bordeaux, January 30th, 1703; son of Louis-Amable Bigot. Through his influence at court, obtained several lucrative offices in New France, which he turned to his own personal advantage. Arrived at Louisbourg in 1739. After the capture of Louisbourg in 1745, returned to France, where serious charges of misappropriating public funds had been brought against him, but his influence at court was still powerful enough to extricate him from this scrape, and to secure him the office of intendant of New France, 1748. Sailed for Quebec and arrived the same year. Able but unscrupulous, he elaborated a system of peculation, by which every branch of the public service was laid under tribute to enrich himself and his creatures, helping thereby to bring about the final loss of the colony. Returned to France after the conquest of Canada; thrown into the Bastille, and released, only to be banished from France. Bib.: Roy, Intendants de la Nouvelle France (R. S. C., 1903); Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe.

Billings, Elkanah (1820-1876). Born in township of Gloucester, Ontario. Studied law, called to the bar, 1845, and practised in Ottawa. Appointed paleontologist of the Geological Survey of Canada, 1856, and in the same year established the Canadian Naturalist. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Cyc. Am. Biog.; Ami, Brief Biographical Sketch of Elkanah Billings.

Billopp, Christopher (1737-1827). Commanded a corps of Loyalists in the American Revolution, raised in the vicinity of New York. His extensive property was confiscated. Lord Howe met Franklin, Adams and Rutledge, a Committee of Congress, at Billopp House, in an attempt to adjust the difficulties between the mother country and the colonies. Billopp went to Nova Scotia in 1783, and thence to New Brunswick, where he became a member of the Assembly and of the Council. Died at St. John.

Bishop, William Avery (1894-). Educated at the Royal Military College. Went overseas with 7th Canadian Mounted Rifles as lieutenant. Joined Royal Flying Corps, 1915. Promoted captain, 1917; major, 1917; lieutenant-colonel, 1918. Awarded Military Cross, 1917; D.S.O., 1917; Victoria Cross, 1917; Bar to D.S.O., 1917; Distinguished Flying Cross, 1918; Legion of Honour, 1918; Croix de Guerre with Palm, 1918. Officially credited with seventy-two German machines destroyed. Lectured on aerial warfare, 1919-1920. Bib.: Winged Warfare.

Bishops of New France. François de Laval-Montmorency, 1674-1688; Jean Baptiste de la Croix-Chevrière de Saint-Vallier, 1688-1727; Louis François de Mornay, 1727-1733; Pierre-Herman Dosquet, 1733-1739; François Louis Pourroy de L’Auberivière, 1739-1740; Henri-Marie Dubreuil de Pontbriand, 1741-1760.

Black, John (1817-1879). Born in Scotland. Went to the Red River Settlement as legal adviser to Adam Thorn, recorder of Rupert’s Land, 1839. Subsequently entered the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company and rose to the position of chief trader. Went back to Scotland, 1852. Spent some time in Australia, and returned to the Red River Settlement as recorder of Rupert’s Land, 1862. Appointed a delegate to Ottawa to present the views of the settlers on the taking over of the country by the Dominion government, 1870. Proceeded to Scotland, where he died. Bib.: Bryce, Manitoba.

Black, John (1818-1882). Born in Scotland. Emigrated to America with his parents and studied for a time at Delaware Academy at Delhi, New York. Came to Canada and completed his theological course at Knox College, Toronto. Ordained to the ministry of the Presbyterian Church and proceeded to the Red River Settlement, 1851. Remained in charge of the church at Kildonan until his death. Bib.: Bryce, John Black: The Apostle of the Red River.

Black, William (1760-1834). Born in England. In 1775 came to Canada and became a Wesleyan Methodist preacher. Founded the Wesleyan Church in Nova Scotia, and became general superintendent of British American Wesleyan missions. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; Maclean, William Black.

Black, William. President of the New Brunswick Assembly in 1831. Married a daughter of Christopher Billopp (q.v.). A member of the Legislative Council of New Brunswick and of the Executive Council. Resigned, 1843.

Blackader, Hugh W. (1808-1863). Descended from Loyalist stock. Began to learn the trade of printer at the age of twelve. Acquired an interest in the Acadian Recorder, 1837, and continued to publish the paper until his death. Closely identified with the Reform movement and a strong supporter of Joseph Howe. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia.

Blackfoot Indians. A Western confederacy, of Siksika stock. First described in the journal of Anthony Hendry, 1754-1755, and again by Matthew Cocking, 1772-1773. They were then known to the Crees as the Archithinue. Cocking also gives the following for the five tribes in the Confederacy: Powestic-Athinuewuck or Water-fall Indians; Mithco-Athinuewuck or Bloody Indians; Koskitow-Wathesitock or Black-footed Indians; Pegonow or Muddy-water Indians; and Sassewuck or Woody-country Indians. Their habitat was then, and until comparatively recent times, in the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains, on the upper waters of the Saskatchewan. They are now for the most part on reservations in Alberta. Bib.: Petitot, Traditions Indiennes du Canada Nord-Ouest; Grinnell, Blackfoot Lodge Tales; Hendry Journal (R. S. C., 1908); Cocking Journal (R. S. C., 1909); Franklin, Polar Sea; Catlin, North American Indians; Hodge, Handbook of American Indians.

Blair, Adam Johnston Fergusson (1815-1867). Member of the Legislative Assembly of Canada, 1848-1857; appointed to the Legislative Council, 1860; receiver-general, 1863; member of the Executive Council and provincial secretary, 1863-1864; president of the Executive Council, 1866. Appointed president of the Privy Council and member of the first Dominion Cabinet, 1867. Bib.: Dent, Last Forty Years.

Blair, Andrew George (1844-1907). Born in Fredericton, New Brunswick. Educated there, and called to the bar, 1866. In 1878 member of the New Brunswick Assembly for York; in 1879 leader of the opposition; and in 1883 premier of the province. In 1896 resigned and became minister of railways and canals in the Dominion government, under Laurier, retiring in 1903. In February, 1904, chairman of the Railway Commission of Canada, resigning in October of the same year. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.; Who’s Who, 1906.

Blake, Edward (1833-1912). Born in Adelaide, Ontario. Educated at Upper Canada College and University of Toronto. Called to the bar of Ontario, 1859, and became its acknowledged leader. From 1867 to 1872 a member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario; and premier, 1871-1872. From 1867 to 1891 member of the Dominion House of Commons. In 1873 a member of Alexander Mackenzie’s Dominion ministry; in 1875-1877 minister of justice and attorney-general; and 1877-1878 president of the Council. In 1874 he made a brilliant and startling speech at Elora advocating the federation of the Empire, the reorganization of the Senate, compulsory voting, extension of the franchise and representation of minorities. In imperial matters his point of view was that Canada should take her share of the burdens of Empire, but only when she had a share in moulding the policies of the Empire. From 1878 to 1887 leader of the Liberal opposition in the House of Commons. Attacked the plans for the Canadian Pacific Railway as a ruinous project. Supported Costigan’s Home Rule proposal in Canadian Parliament. Supported a motion that the death sentence on Louis Riel should be commuted. He was strongly opposed to the policy of unrestricted reciprocity with the United States, advocated by Edward Farrer, and refused to be a candidate in the election of 1891. In 1892 went to Ireland and elected member for South Longford in the British House of Commons; retired, 1907. He was, says O. D. Skelton, the most complex and baffling character in Canadian political history; reserved, moody, too independent and original-minded to wear any party’s harness easily, and too self-absorbed for team-play; in Parliament its most masterful and overwhelming logician. Sir Wilfrid Laurier said of him: “Blake was the most powerful intellectual force in Canadian political history. He had an extraordinary mental organization, a grasp that covered the whole and searched out each smallest detail. He was first and foremost the great advocate, a tremendous dialectician, analysing and cross analysing to the last point, major points and minor points, utterly exhaustive. But he was no mere man of words. He would have proved Canada’s most constructive statesman had he held office. Without any of the lesser arts, he cast a spell over every man in Parliament.” Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Who’s Who, 1910; Dent, Can. Por., and Last Forty Years; Ewan, Hon. Edward Blake; Taché, Men.

Blake, William Hume (1809-1870). Born in Ireland. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and emigrated to Canada in his youth. During the Rebellion of 1837, paymaster of the Royal Foresters. Called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1838. A member of the Legislative Assembly for East York, 1847, and solicitor-general in the LaFontaine-Baldwin administration, 1848-1849. Appointed to the Bench, 1849. In the debate on the Rebellion Losses Bill feeling rose so high that John A. Macdonald sent a challenge to Blake, for which he was promptly taken into custody by the sergeant-at-arms. Blake was one of the leading figures in the fight for responsible government in Upper Canada. In 1850 Chancellor of Upper Canada, retiring March, 1862. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por., and Last Forty Years; Read, Lives of the Judges; Cyc. Am. Biog.

Blanshard, Richard (d. 1894). Appointed governor of Vancouver Island by Earl Grey; left England, 1849, and reached Victoria in March of the following year by way of Panama. The Hudson’s Bay Company at that time controlled the situation. The governor, without salary or residence or any staff or effective support of any kind from the home government, but with a will of his own, soon got into open antagonism with the Company, and being powerless to assert his authority, sent in his resignation in 1850, and in 1851 returned to England, leaving a provisional government consisting of Douglas, Cooper and Tod to carry on until the intentions of the home government should be known. Bib.: Coats and Gosnell, Sir James Douglas; Begg, History of British Columbia.

Bliss, Daniel (1740-1806). Born in Concord, Mass. Educated at Harvard University, graduating in 1774. In 1778 proscribed as a Loyalist, and served with the British army as commissary. At the end of the war, moved to New Brunswick; appointed a member of the provincial Council, and later chief-justice of the Court of Common Pleas. Bib.: Hannay, History of New Brunswick; Sabine, Loyalists.

Bliss, John Murray (1771-1834). Born in Massachusetts. Son of Daniel. Came to New Brunswick in 1786; called to the bar; and elected to the House of Assembly for the county of York. Appointed to the bench in 1816; became a member of the king’s Council; and in 1824 administrator of the province for one year. Subsequently a judge of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; Sabine, Loyalists.

Bliss, Jonathan (1742-1822). Born in Springfield, Mass. Educated at Harvard University. A member of the General Court of Massachusetts, 1768. Proscribed in 1778. Emigrated to New Brunswick in 1783. In 1785 elected a member of the provincial Legislature and appointed attorney-general. From 1809 to 1822 chief-justice. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; Sabine, Loyalists.

Blowers, Sampson Salter. Born in Boston. Imprisoned as a Loyalist, 1778. On his release went to Halifax. In 1785 became attorney-general and Speaker of the House of Assembly. In 1797 chief-justice of the Supreme Court. Ex-President Adams of the United States paid him a visit in 1840. Died, 1842. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Boer War. See South African War.

Boishébert, Louis Henri Dechamps, Sieur de. Born, 1679. Married the daughter of Ramezay, governor of Montreal and administrator of the Colony, in 1721. In charge at Detroit, 1730, and later placed in charge of Indian affairs throughout Canada. In 1754 he was in command in Acadia, and served there throughout the French and Indian war, 1754-1763. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xvii.

Bompas, William Carpenter (1853-1906). Born in London, England. Ordained deacon, 1859; priest, 1865; came to Canada latter year and assigned to the Mackenzie River district. In 1874 consecrated bishop of Athabaska. In 1884 transferred to see of Mackenzie River, and in 1891 to that of Selkirk. Author of a number of primers in the Athabaskan and Algonquian languages, as well as in Eskimo. Bib.: Diocese of Mackenzie River; Cody, An Apostle of the North; Machray, Archbishop Machray; Mockridge, Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland. For his native primers, see Pilling, Bibliography of Athabaskan Languages.

Bond, William Bennett (1815-1906). Born in Truro, England. At an early age went to Newfoundland. Removed to Quebec, 1840; the same year admitted deacon, and ordained priest, 1841. For some time engaged as a travelling missionary; assistant to the rector of St. George’s Church, Montreal, 1848; rector 1862; archdeacon of Hochelaga, 1871; dean of Montreal, 1874. In 1879 consecrated bishop of Montreal; in 1901 archbishop; and in 1904 primate of all Canada. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Dent, Can. Por.; Who’s Who, 1905; Mockridge, Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland.

Bonne, Captain de. Born in France, and before coming to Canada served in the regiment of Condé. At the siege of Quebec, 1759, in command of the Quebec and Three Rivers militia, and took part in the battle of the Plains and the battle of Ste. Foy. Bib.: Doughty, Siege of Quebec.

Bonnécamps, Joseph Pierre de (1707-1790). Born in France. Entered the Jesuit order, and came to Canada in 1741, when he was appointed instructor of hydrography at the Seminary of Quebec. Held that position until the fall of Quebec in 1759. In 1765-1766 laboured among the French refugees on the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon.

Bonnycastle, Sir Richard Henry (1791-1848). Born in England. Served in Canada in 1812, and engaged in the capture of Fort Castine. During the Rebellion of 1837-1838 commanded the engineers in Canada West, and defended Kingston in 1838. Knighted for distinguished service, 1837. Afterwards commander of engineers in Newfoundland. Bib.: The Canadas in 1841; Canada and the Canadians in 1846; Canada as It was, Is and May Be. For biog., see Dict. Nat. Biog.

Booth, John Rudolphus (1826-1925). Born in Shefford County, Quebec. Started a small shingle mill at Ottawa in 1857, and eventually developed it into an enormous industry. Acquired vast timber limits. A man of indomitable courage and resourcefulness, he met disasters that would have daunted most men without complaint or loss of spirit. When he needed a railway to carry his raw material and the products of his mills, he built it himself. Five hundred miles of his railways were acquired by the Grand Trunk in 1905. He has been described as “the unconquerable pioneer, the nation builder, the man whose courage, genius and imagination tamed the wilderness, reared mighty industries, and did more than any other man of his time to build up his own community.”

Boothia Peninsula. Between McClintock Channel and the Gulf of Boothia, Arctic coast. The Magnetic Pole is on it. Named by John Ross, 1830, after Sir Felix Booth (1775-1850), Sheriff of London, who promoted Ross’ expedition. Explored by Ross, and by Rae in 1847 and 1854. The Gulf, also named after Booth, was visited by Parry in 1822, and later by Ross and Rae. Bib.: Atlas of Canada; White, Place Names in Northern Canada.

Borden, Sir Frederick William (1847-1917). Studied medicine and practised for a time. Entered politics and represented King’s County. N.S., 1874-1882 and 1887-1911. Became minister of militia and defence in the Laurier government, 1896. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Borden, Sir Robert Laird (1854-). Born in Grand Pré, N.S. Studied law with Sir Robert Weatherbe (q.v.), called to the bar, 1878, and practised at Kentville and Halifax. Appointed Q.C., 1890. In 1896 elected for the city and county of Halifax to the Dominion Parliament, and for Carleton county, 1905. In 1901 succeeded Sir Charles Tupper as leader of the Conservative Party. Prime Minister, 1911. Formed Union government of Conservatives and Liberals, 1917. Member of the Imperial War Cabinet and Imperial War Conference, 1917 and 1918. One of the Canadian representatives at the Peace Conference in Paris, 1919, and took a very active part in its deliberations, as well as in the framing of the constitution of the League of Nations. A member of the British Economics Committee to suggest policies and formulate machinery for the Supreme Economic Council of the Peace Conference. Returned to Canada, and in September moved the approval of the Treaty of Peace by the Dominion Parliament. Resigned as Prime Minister, 1920, owing to ill health. Since his retirement from public life, he has given a good deal of time to lectures and public addresses on international law and international relations. Bib.: Canadian Constitutional Studies; Morgan, Can. Men; Who’s Who.

Boscawen, Edward (1711-1761). Born in England. Served at Porto Bello, 1739-1740; at Cartagena, 1741; and in the West Indies, 1747. Commanded on the North American station between 1755 and 1757, and in 1758 commander-in-chief of the fleet at the siege of Louisbourg. In 1759 defeated the French in Lagos Bay, and in 1760 commanded the fleet in Quiberon Bay. Bib.: Wood, Logs of the Conquest of Canada; Doughty, Siege of Quebec; Dict. Nat. Biog. See also Louisbourg.

Botsford, Bliss (1813-1890). Born at Sackville, New Brunswick. Educated at King’s College, Fredericton; called to the bar, 1838, and practised at Moncton until 1870. A member of the New Brunswick Assembly, with brief intervals, from 1851 to 1870. In 1865 surveyor-general in the Smith ministry, and a member of the Executive Council, of which he was Speaker from 1867 to 1870. From 1870 to 1890 judge of the County Court. Bib.: Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

Boucher de Boucherville, Sir Charles Eugene (1822-1915). Descended from following. Elected to Assembly, 1861. Appointed to Legislative Council of Quebec, 1867, of which he became Speaker. Premier of Quebec, 1874, and again, 1891. Appointed to Senate of Canada, 1879.

Boucher de Grosbois et de Boucherville, Pierre (1622-1717). Came to Canada in 1634 with his father; served as a soldier of the little garrison of Quebec in 1641. Four years later settled at Three Rivers, and having made himself familiar with several Indian languages, employed as interpreter. For nearly a quarter of a century served the town of his adoption in various capacities, civil and military. Filled the office of governor of Three Rivers, with short intervals, from 1652 to 1667. Visited France in 1661-1662, received by Louis XIV, and given a patent of nobility, and on his return to Canada brought out a number of colonists. In 1667 retired to his seigniory of Boucherville. Left a brief but interesting history of New France, written in 1663, while he was still governor of Three Rivers, and published the following year. Bib.: Histoire Véritable et Naturelle des Mœurs et Productions du Pays de la Nouvelle France. Paris, 1664. Reprinted, 1849, 1882, 1883, 1896. The last is in the Trans. of the Royal Society for that year, and was edited by Benjamin Sulte, with biographical and bibliographical notes.

Bouchette, Joseph (1774-1841). Entered the naval service, 1791; in command of the forces on Lake Ontario; and served in the Royal Canadian volunteers. In 1813 on active service; and in 1814-1816 in England, where he published his topographical and geographical description of Canada. Employed as surveyor-general in delimiting the boundary between Canada and the United States, 1817-1818. Bib.: Topographical Description of the Province of Lower Canada; British Dominions in North America.

Bouchette, Robert Shore Milnes. Took sides with Papineau in 1837, was taken prisoner at Moore’s Corners, imprisoned in Montreal, and exiled to Bermuda. His defence of those who took part in the Rebellion will be found in DeCelles’ Papineau, Cartier. Afterward Commissioner of Customs at Ottawa.

Bougainville, Louis Antoine, Comte de (1729-1811). Born in Paris. Educated for his father’s profession of notary; and soon obtained recognition as an advocate in the Parliament of Paris. As a student displayed a remarkable talent for mathematics, and at the age of twenty-two wrote the first volume of a treatise on the Integral Calculus. His mathematical work recognized by the Royal Society in electing him to a fellowship. Joined the army in 1755, and the next year came to Canada as Montcalm’s aide-de-camp. Accompanied him on the Oswego campaign of 1756 and that of Lake George, 1757. Wounded at Ticonderoga the following year. Sent to France to secure aid, where he was promoted colonel but failed in his mission. Returned in April, 1759, bringing news of the approach of the English fleet. Played an important part in the siege of Quebec, commanded the Grenadiers on the Beauport shore, charged with the protection of the country west of Quebec, blamed for failure to reinforce the post at the Foulon (Wolfe’s Cove), held his position at Cap Rouge, while remainder of French army retreated. Wrote an elaborate journal of the campaign, much of which appears to have been incorporated in Montcalm’s Journal, published by Abbé Casgrain. Returned to France in 1761, and, after serving in Germany, joined the navy. From 1766 to 1769 made a voyage around the world; served in the West Indies during the Revolutionary War, and commanded the van of the French fleet in the action off Chesapeake Bay. Retired from active service, 1790; nominated by Napoleon to the Senate, and raised to the nobility. Bib.: Works: Traité du Calcul Intégral; Voyage autour du Monde; Journal de l’Expédition d’Amérique, 1756-1758 in Rapport de l’Archiviste de Québec, 1923-1924; Essai Historique sur les Navigations Anciennes et Modernes (Acad. des Sciences Morales et Pol., Vol. I); Notice Historique sur les Sauvages de l’Amérique Septentrionale (ibid., Vol. III). His letters are printed in Doughty, Siege of Quebec; and his manuscript journals are in the Canadian Archives. See also De Kerallain, La Jeunesse de Bougainville; Michaud, Biog. Univ.; Larousse, Grande Dict. Univ.; Casgrain, Montcalm et Lévis; Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe; Wood, The Fight for Canada; Hart, The Fall of New France, 1755-1760; Casgrain, Wolfe, Montcalm. His portrait is in Doughty’s Siege of Quebec.

Boulton, D’Arcy. Born in England. Came to Canada, 1797, and settled at York, 1803. Called to the bar of Upper Canada by special Act of the Legislature, 1803; solicitor-general, 1805. While on his way to England, 1810, captured by a French privateer, and remained a prisoner in France until 1814. Appointed judge of Assize, 1818. Died in York about 1830. Bib.: Read, Lives of the Judges; Scadding, Toronto of Old.

Boulton, Henry John. Son of D’Arcy Boulton; born in England, 1790. Studied law and called to the English bar. Emigrated to Canada, 1816, and practised in Upper Canada. In 1818 appointed solicitor-general; attorney-general, 1829; elected to the Assembly for Niagara; removed from attorney-generalship by colonial secretary on account of his independent votes in Assembly, 1833; proceeded to England to vindicate his actions; appointed chief-justice of Newfoundland, 1833; removed from office, 1838, and returned to Canada. Represented town of Niagara in Assembly, 1841-1844, and Norfolk County, 1848-1851. Bib.: Short Sketch of Upper Canada. For biog., see Morgan, Cel. Can.

Boundary Questions. See Alaska; Oregon; North West Angle; Maine; Labrador; Ontario; Manitoba. Bib.: Treaties and Agreements relating to Boundaries between Canada and the United States.

Bouquet, Henry (1719-1766). Born in Switzerland. Served in Holland, Sardinia, and with the Prince of Orange. Was Captain-commandant of the Swiss Guards at the Hague, 1748. Entered the British army; came to America in 1754 with Haldimand and the “Royal Americans;” and held a leading command for several years in the French and Indian wars. Stationed in South Carolina, and in 1758 marched with General Forbes against Fort Pitt. In command there until 1762, and the following year returned with a relief expedition to raise the siege. After a severe battle at Bushy Run he spent the winter of 1763-1764 organizing an expedition into the Indian territory. He penetrated to the Delaware towns and made a treaty of peace. Promoted brigadier, and received the thanks of the King for his services. His letters (Bouquet Papers in the British Museum—copies in Public Archives of Canada), throw interesting sidelights on affairs in the Colonies. Died at Pensacola, Florida. Bib.: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe and Conspiracy of Pontiac; Canadian Archives Report, 1889. Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii.

Bourassa, Henri (1868-). Born in Montreal, son of Napoleon Bourassa (q.v.), and grandson of Papineau (q.v.). Elected to House of Commons, 1896. Resigned, 1899, as a protest against Canada’s participation in South African War. Re-elected, 1900; 1904. Resigned, 1907; elected Quebec Legislature, 1908; Commons, 1925. He is the leader, and was one of the founders, of the political group known as Nationalists, whose creed may perhaps be given as Canada First, Last and All the Time. Has been for many years the editor of Le Devoir, a Montreal newspaper. Bib.: Grande Bretagne et Canada: Questions Actuelle; La Patriotisme Canadien-Française; The Reciprocity Agreement from a Nationalist Standpoint; The Spectre of Annexation; The Imperial Question; Hier, Aujourd’hui, Demain.

Bourassa, Napoleon (1827-1916). Studied art in Florence and Rome, and on his return to Canada devoted himself to painting and architecture, particularly church architecture. Became vice-president of the Royal Canadian Academy. One of the founders of La Revue Canadienne, and the author of a number of volumes of essays, fiction and books of travel. Bib.: Jacques et Marie; Nos Grand Mères.

Bourdon, Jean (1602-1668). Born in Normandy. Came to Canada, 1634. Engaged for some years as a civil engineer and land surveyor; sent on several embassies to the Iroquois; and in 1657 made a voyage towards Hudson Bay, but prevented by ice from entering the Strait. Mentioned as being at Quebec in 1665.

Bourgeoys, Marguerite (1620-1700). Born at Troyes, in Champagne. Entered the convent of the Congregation of Notre Dame at the age of twenty, and while there decided to devote her life to the colony of New France. Arrived in Quebec in September, 1653, and went on immediately to the new settlement of Montreal. In 1657 opened the first school, in a stable granted her by Maisonneuve. In the same year built a wooden chapel in Montreal. Founded the Congrégation de Notre Dame de Montreal in 1659, and in 1686 built the convent. In 1675, with funds obtained from France, built the church of Bonsecours. Abbé Verreau says of her work as an educationalist: “She taught young women to become what they ought to be, full of moral force, of modesty, of courage in the face of the dangers in the midst of which they lived. If the French Canadians have possessed a certain character for politeness and urbanity, they owe it in a great measure to the work of Marguerite Bourgeoys.” Bib.: Ransonet, Vie de la Sœur Bourgeoys; Faillon, Vie de la Sœur Bourgeoys; Parkman, Jesuits in North America and Old Régime; Colby, Canadian Types of the Old Régime.

Bourget, Ignace (1799-1885). Born at Point Lévis, Quebec. Ordained in 1822; vicar-general of Montreal, 1836; coadjutor-bishop of the diocese, 1837; bishop of Montreal, 1840, and created the first cathedral chapter of that city. Founded several religious orders, colleges, and asylums, among others, in 1864, the institution for the deaf and dumb, Montreal. In 1862 created a Roman count and assistant at the Pontifical Throne. In 1876 archbishop of Martianopolis, in partibus. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.

Bourinot, Sir John George (1837-1902). Born in Sydney, Nova Scotia. Educated at Trinity University, Toronto. Chief official reporter to the Nova Scotia Assembly, 1861-1867, and in 1880 appointed Clerk of the Dominion House of Commons. For many years honorary secretary of the Royal Society of Canada. Historian and an authority on parliamentary government. Bib.: Works: Canada under British Rule; Federal Government in Canada; How Canada is Governed; Manual of Constitutional History of Canada; Parliamentary Procedure and Government in Canada; Canada; Builders of Nova Scotia. For biog., see Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

Bourlamaque, François Charles de, Chevalier de. Born in France. Sent in 1756 with Montcalm to Canada as third in command and colonel of engineers. Accompanied Montcalm on his campaigns of 1756, 1757 and 1758. In charge of Ticonderoga in 1759; evacuated the fort and fell back on Ile-aux-Noix. Joined army of Lévis on march against Quebec, and occupied positions at Lorette and Ste. Foy. Promoted brigadier-general. Wounded in battle of Ste. Foy. “There are,” says Professor Wrong, “not wanting indications that, next to Montcalm himself, the most efficient of the soldiers who served on the French side during the war was Bourlamaque.” Returned to France, and sent as governor to Guadaloupe, where he died in 1794. Bib.: Doughty, Siege of Quebec; Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe; Wood, The Fight for Canada; Wrong, The Fall of Canada.

Bourlon Wood, Battle of. September 27th, 1918. This was part of the greater battle for the possession of Cambrai (q.v.). The Canadians fought their way across the Canal du Nord, and started on the dash for Bourlon Wood, which commanded Cambrai, and the possession of which was of vital importance. This the Germans thoroughly understood, and the advance of the Canadians was fiercely contested. Nevertheless before noon the wood was taken, and the 12th Brigade had pushed through and taken the town of Bourlon. Bib.: Canada in the Great World War. See also Cambrai.

Bouteroue, Claude de. Born in France. Came to Canada to act as intendant during the absence of Talon from 1668 to 1670. Returned to France, 1671, and died there, 1680. Bib.: Charlevoix, History of New France.

Bow River Pass. Through the Bow Range of the Rocky Mountains, from the head waters of Bow River to the Little Fork of the Saskatchewan. Visited by W. D. Wilcox in 1896; Professor Collie in 1897; and Mrs. Schäffer in 1907.

Bowell, Sir Mackenzie (1823-1917). Born in England. Came to Canada with his parents, 1833, and engaged in journalistic work. In 1867 elected to the Dominion House of Commons for North Hastings. In 1878 appointed minister of customs, holding that office until 1891; minister of militia, 1892; and minister of trade and commerce, 1892-1894. In 1894 succeeded Sir John Thompson as premier, and resigned office in 1896. Created a K. C. M. G., 1895. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Bowen, Edward (1780-1866). Born in Ireland. Came to Canada in 1797; studied law and called to the bar in 1803. From 1809 to 1812 represented Sorel in the Assembly; and in the latter year appointed to the Court of King’s Bench. In 1821 became a member of the Legislative Council, and in 1835 elected Speaker. In 1849 chief-justice of the Superior Court for Lower Canada. Bib.: Taylor, Brit. Am.

Boyd, John (1828-1893). Born in Ireland. Emigrated to New Brunswick, and engaged in business at St. John. In 1880 called to the Senate, and on September 22nd, 1893, succeeded Sir S. L. Tilley as lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick. Bib.: Hannay, History of New Brunswick.

Boyle, Joseph (1867-1923). Born in Toronto. Went to the Klondyke in the early days of the gold rush and made a fortune. When the war broke out in 1914, he organized a machine-gun battery and took it overseas. Served in France, and in 1916 was sent by the War Office to Russia with the military transport commission. The story of his adventures and exploits during the war reads more like an improbable romance than sober history. He was instrumental in saving the Dowager Empress of Russia and members of her family from the Bolsheviks, and in reclaiming the Roumanian crown jewels and other treasures which had been sent to Moscow early in the war. After the armistice he became food controller for Roumania and organized a relief campaign. Colonel Boyle had been decorated with the D.S.O., Legion of Honour, and various Russian and Roumanian orders.

Braddock, Edward (1695-1755). Born in Scotland. Entered the army, 1710, and in 1743 major of the Coldstreams. Served in the expedition to L’Orient, 1746; and under the Prince of Orange in Holland, 1746-1748. Colonel of the 14th Foot at Gibraltar, 1753. In 1755 general and commander-in-chief in British North America; and on July 9th, 1755, commanded the British expedition against Fort Duquesne, where, ambushed by the French and Indians, he was defeated and mortally wounded. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.; Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe; Bradley, The Fight with France; Sargent, History of an Expedition against Fort Duquesne, 1755, under Maj.-Gen. Edward Braddock.

Bradstreet, John. Born in England, and came out to the New England colonies. Distinguished himself at the siege of Louisbourg in 1745. In the French and Indian wars he was given command of a force of voyageurs, and with their aid defended Oswego and captured Fort Frontenac, 1758. Promoted colonel in 1762, he was sent to punish the western Indians, but carried out his commission without much success. Became major-general in 1772. Died at Detroit in 1774. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii.

Brandon House. Built by the Hudson’s Bay Company, in 1794, on the head waters of the Assiniboine River, about seventeen miles below the present city of Brandon. The buildings were burnt about 1814, and the post abandoned. Bib.: Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Brant, Joseph (1742-1807). A Mohawk Indian chief, whose native name was Thayendanegea. Educated at an Indian school in Connecticut. Visited England in 1775. In the Revolutionary War sided with the British and rendered valuable service. Revisited England after the war. Received by Washington at Philadelphia as an Indian emissary in 1792. The following year he took part in the conference between representatives of the tribes, of the United States and of Canada, with a view to settling the vexed question of the Indians and their lands. Brant’s cautious diplomacy alienated the Indians and created distrust in the mind of Simcoe. On the other hand he had been highly esteemed by Haldimand, on whose recommendation the King had made him Colonel of Indians. Translated the Book of Common Prayer and St. Mark’s Gospel into the Mohawk tongue (London, 1787). Bib.: Stone, Life of Brant; Cruikshank, Joseph Brant in the American Revolution; Eggleston, Brant and Red Jacket; Ke-che-ah-gah-me-qua, Life of Brant; Dent, Can. Por.; Wood, War Chief of the Six Nations.

Brant, Molly. Sister of Joseph Brant. Regarded by the Indians, with whom she had great influence, as the widow of Sir William Johnson (q.v.). Settled in a house at Carleton Island and granted a pension for services in helping to keep her tribesmen loyal.

Brantford. City of Ontario, on the Grand River. Named after Joseph Brant, the Mohawk chieftain. Founded about 1820. Surveyed for a village, 1830; town in 1847; incorporated as a city in 1877.

Bras D’or Lakes. In Cape Breton. Connected with the sea by two channels known as the Great and the Little Bras D’or, and by the St. Peter’s Canal. The name is a modern corruption of the old French name Labrador. Bib.: Bourinot, Cape Breton (R. S. C., 1891).

Brébeuf, Jean de (1593-1649). Born of a noble family of Normandy. Came to Canada, 1625; spent the winter of 1625-1626 among the Algonquins. In the latter year, after a long and difficult journey by way of the Ottawa and Lake Nipissing, reached the villages of the Hurons, on Georgian Bay, where he established the first mission. Returned to Quebec in 1629, and in 1634 re-established the Huron mission. In 1640 made an unsuccessful attempt to establish a mission among the intractable Neutral Nation, north of Lake Erie. Returned to the Huron mission, where, in 1649, he was captured by the Iroquois, and burned at the stake with unmentionable cruelties. His skull is preserved in the Hotel-Dieu at Quebec. Bib.: Parkman, Jesuits in North America; Ragueneau, Relation des Hurons, 1649; Colby, Canadian Types of the Old Régime; Campbell, Pioneer Priests.

Breda, Treaty of. Signed between England and France, 1667. Brought to a close the disastrous war with the Dutch. By its terms Nova Scotia was handed over to France. Bib.: Hertslet, Treaties and Conventions.

Brenton, James. United Empire Loyalist. Brother of Sir Jahleel Brenton, rear-admiral in the Royal Navy. Emigrated from Rhode Island to Halifax during the Revolution. Became a judge of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia and a member of the Executive Council. Appointed judge of the Vice-Admiralty Court, 1800. Died at Halifax, 1806. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Brererton, Alexander. Corporal, 8th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Victoria Cross. During an attack east of Amiens, August 9th, 1908, when a line of enemy machine-guns suddenly opened fire on his platoon, he sprang forward on his own initiative and reached one of the hostile machine-gun posts, killed two of the crew and forced nine others to surrender. His splendid example inspired his platoon to capture the five remaining posts.

Bressani, Joseph (1612-1672). Born in Rome, and entered the Society of Jesus in 1626. Studied at Rome and Clermont, and sailed for Canada, 1642. After spending a couple of years at Quebec and Three Rivers, he set out for Huronia, but was captured by the Iroquois above Three Rivers and carried off to their villages. There they subjected him to indescribable tortures, but without actually killing him. Finally, the Dutch ransomed him and carried him to New Amsterdam (New York), where he wrote a minute account of his experiences with the Iroquois. He sailed for Holland, the ship was chased by Turkish corsairs, but he reached Europe, had an interview with Pope Innocent X, and finally again sailed for Canada, spent some time among the Hurons, came down twice to Quebec seeking help, and finally in 1650 met Ragueneau with the remnant of the Hurons on his way down the river. The same year he returned to Europe, and died in Florence. Bib.: Campbell, Pioneer Priests.

Brest. A legendary town supposed to be somewhere on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. This myth originated in 1608, in a little book published in Lyons, France, purporting to describe the writer’s experiences in New France. He describes Brest as “the principal town of the whole country, well provisioned, large and strongly fortified, peopled by about fifty thousand men.” This was, of course, pure romance, but it was taken seriously, and Brest continued to figure even in serious books of history down to the end of the nineteenth century. Bib.: Grenfell, Labrador; Dawson, Brest on the Quebec Labrador (R. S. C., 1905).

Briand, Jean Olivier (1715-1794). Born in France. Ordained priest, 1739; came to Canada, 1741; canon of Quebec Cathedral until 1760. In 1766 appointed bishop of Quebec, and resigned, 1784. Rebuilt the cathedral and palace, destroyed during the siege of Quebec, 1759. He was an energetic and effective administrator, and warmly supported the British cause during the American Revolution and the Invasion of 1775-1776.

Brillant, John. Lieutenant, 22nd Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Victoria Cross. He led his company in an attack east of Meharicourt, August 8th and 9th, 1918, with absolute fearlessness and extraordinary ability and initiative. Although repeatedly wounded, he led his men again and again against enemy positions, including a machine-gun nest where one hundred and fifty men and fifteen machine-guns were captured. In rushing a field gun, he fell unconscious from exhaustion and loss of blood.

Brinley, George. A Boston merchant, who left the country during the Revolution. He was appointed commissary-general of His Majesty’s forces in British North America in 1799. Died in Halifax, 1809. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

British American League. Formed in Montreal in 1849 as a reply to the Annexation Manifesto. Branches organized throughout the country. Largely due to the inspiration of John A. Macdonald. Confederation one of its principal objects; a national fiscal policy another. See Annexation. Bib.: Pope, Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald; Allin, The British North American League, 1849, in Ontario Historical Society Papers and Records, vol. xiii.

British Colonist. Newspaper established in Victoria, British Columbia, by Amor de Cosmos, in 1858. Still survives.

British Columbia. Area, 355,855 square miles. Population by census of 1921, 524,582. Her Majesty Queen Victoria was consulted regarding the naming of the province, and on July 24th, 1858, recommended the name it still bears. Vancouver Island became a crown colony in 1849; ten years later the mainland was organized as a separate colony; in 1866 island and mainland became one; and in 1871 the colony became a province of the Dominion of Canada. The early history of the colony closely identified with that of the Hudson’s Bay Company. One of the outstanding events was the gold rush of 1858-1860, which gave an enormous impetus to the development of the colony, particularly in the matters of civil government and transportation. The entry of the colony into the Dominion brought with it the building of Canada’s first transcontinental railway, the Canadian Pacific. Bib.: Begg, History of British Columbia; Bancroft, History of British Columbia; Macdonald, British Columbia and Vancouver Island; Macfie, Vancouver Island and British Columbia; Morice, The History of the Northern Interior of British Columbia; Herring, Among the People of British Columbia; Fitzgerald, The Hudson’s Bay Company and Vancouver Island; Mayne, Four Years in British Columbia; Baillie-Grohman, Sport and Life in Western America and British Columbia; Métin, La Colombie Britannique; Indians of British Columbia (R. S. C., 1888); Langevin, Report on British Columbia; Coats and Gosnell, Sir James Douglas; Scholefield and Howey, British Columbia.

British Columbia Archives. Established, 1898, by R. E. Gosnell, then provincial librarian, and built up by E. O. S. Scholefield, who succeeded him, 1910, as archivist and provincial librarian. Published a number of journals and other documents relating to the early history of British Columbia and the North-West Coast.

British North America Act. The constitution of the Dominion; the Act by which the scattered colonies of British North America were united in one Confederation. Drafted at the Quebec Conference, 1864; discussed and passed in the form of resolutions, in the Legislature of Canada, 1865; put in final shape at the Westminster Conference, 1866; passed by the Imperial Parliament, and proclaimed, 1867. The essential feature of this Act, and that which distinguishes it most clearly from the Constitution of the United States, is the provision that all matters not specifically assigned to the provinces belong to the Dominion, the reverse being the case under the United States Constitution. Broadly speaking, the Act gives the Dominion exclusive jurisdiction over the regulation of trade and commerce, the postal service, customs and inland revenue, military and naval service, navigation and shipping, currency and coinage, banking, weights and measures, patents and copyrights, naturalization, Indians. To the provinces it gives exclusive jurisdiction over direct taxation, management and sale of public lands, timber, provincial prisons, hospitals, asylums, etc., municipal institutions, administration of justice, education. See Confederation: Charlottetown Conference; Quebec Conference; Anti-Confederation Movement. Bib.: Bourinot, Constitution of Canada; Houston, Constitutional Documents; Doutre, Constitution of Canada; Munro, Constitution of Canada; Ashley, Constitutional History of Canada; Gooch, Manual of the Constitution of Canada; Howland, The New Empire; Confederation Debates, 1865; Pope, Confederation Documents; Egerton and Grant, Canadian Constitutional Development; Kennedy, The Constitution of Canada.

British Whig. Newspaper established at Kingston, Ontario, in 1834, by Dr. E. J. Barker. Still survives, and edited up to a few years ago by the grandson of the founder.

Brock. Sir Isaac (1769-1812). Born in the island of Guernsey. Entered the army at the age of fifteen. In 1791 raised an independent company, gazetted captain, and exchanged into the 49th. Next two years quartered in West Indies. Returned home on sick leave. Major in 49th in 1795, and senior lieutenant-colonel two years later. Took part in expedition to Holland under Sir Ralph Abercromby. Second in command of land forces in Baltic expedition, 1801. Next year ordered to Canada. Revealed promptness and decision in putting down mutiny at Fort George. In command at Fort George, 1803-1804. Recommended establishment of corps of veterans who, after their term of service, should be given land and furnished with farming implements and rations for a certain period, to offset influence of the disloyal element. In 1805 quartered in Quebec, and promoted to colonel. Returned to England on leave, and made a report to the Duke of York, then commander-in-chief, designed to improve the efficiency of the army in Canada. Some of his recommendations afterwards carried out. Returned to Canada, 1806. Succeeded to command of the troops in both provinces. Strengthened the fortifications at Quebec. Ordered the building of vessels for service on the lakes. In 1807 he had the volunteers called out for training. He had faith in the loyalty of the French Canadians. Advocated raising a volunteer corps among the Scottish settlers in Glengarry. In 1808 left Quebec to take command in Montreal. Appointed brigadier-general. He was anxious for service in Europe, but the critical situation in America made it impossible to spare him. He himself felt that war with the United States was inevitable. In 1810 sent to Upper Canada, and made his headquarters at Fort George. Anxious to prevent war between the Indians and the United States. Promoted major-general, 1811. He chafed over being condemned to inactivity in Canada while splendid opportunities of service in Europe were being lost. Appointed president and administrator of Upper Canada during Gore’s absence, 1811. In December, 1811, in view of a probable American invasion, he sent a plan of campaign to Prevost. Recommended an aggressive policy, the taking of Detroit and Michilimackinac, and the strengthening of the naval forces on the lakes. In January, 1812, the long hoped for permission to return to England for service in Spain arrived, but the situation in America was now so grave that he felt compelled to refuse. Carried out a scheme of specially trained flank companies in the militia. Brock’s position embarrassed in 1812 by failure of the home government to send either men or money; also by hostile influences in the Upper Canadian Assembly. He placed Major-General Shaw in command of the communications between Kingston and Cornwall, and himself took charge of the western district Niagara to Amherstburg. Realized importance of securing the support of the Indian tribes. He found himself in need of military supplies of every kind. Also the lack of specie had to be met by the issue of special bank notes. June 26th, he learned of the declaration of war, and immediately made his headquarters at Fort George, detailed his little force along the frontier, and sent instructions to capture Michilimackinac. Issued a tactful general order to the militia, and, despite the overwhelming odds against him, kept up the courage of his men. To Hull’s boastful proclamation he replied: “Our enemies have said that they can subdue the country by a proclamation. It is our part to prove to them that they are sadly mistaken.” And in opening the extra session of the Legislature he said: “By unanimity and despatch in our counsels and vigour in our operations we may teach the enemy this lesson, that a country defended by free men enthusiastically devoted to the cause of their king and constitution, can never be conquered.” Then turning from words to deeds, he proved his words true, provided the free men were led by a great general. Proroguing the Legislature, he proceeded at once to the western frontier, where he met Tecumseh for the first time. Organizing all his available men into three brigades, he decided to attack Detroit, to which Hull had retreated. August 16th, Hull surrendered Detroit, and with it the territory of Michigan. Brock was received in triumph at York, but his success was largely nullified by the ill-advised armistice Prevost had arranged with Dearborn. Brock must sit still while the Americans strengthened their position all along the frontier. He had at least the satisfaction of knowing that the commander-in-chief appreciated his “singular judgment, firmness, skill and courage.” October 13th saw his final triumph, the battle of Queenston Heights. He died as he would have wished, leading his men, as Wolfe had done before him, in the hour of victory. See also War of 1812-1814; Detroit; Queenston Heights. Bib.: Tupper, Life and Correspondence of Sir Isaac Brock; Read, Life of Brock; Nursey, Isaac Brock; Edgar, General Brock; Lucas, Canadian War of 1812; Marquis, Brock; Eayrs, Brock.

Brockville. Chief town of Leeds County, Ontario, on left bank of St. Lawrence. Formerly known as Elizabethtown. Founded, 1785. Incorporated as a town, 1832. Raided by a detachment of troops from Ogdensburg in 1813. The town assumed its present name in 1812 before the death of Brock.

Brodeur, Louis Philippe (1862-1924). Edited Le Soir, Montreal, 1896. Represented Rouville in House of Commons, 1891-1911; Speaker of the House, 1901-1904; minister of inland revenue, 1904; minister of marine and fisheries, 1906; minister of naval affairs, 1910. Appointed to Supreme Court of Canada, 1911. Lieutenant-governor of Quebec, 1923.

Brooke, Frances (1724-1789). Wife of a garrison chaplain. Accompanied him to Quebec about 1760. Wrote there two novels of garrison life—the first novels written in Canada. Bib.: The History of Lady Julia Mandeville, 1763; History of Emily Montague, 1769.

Broughton, William Robert (1762-1821). Born in England. Entered the navy, 1774, and served on the American station until 1778. In 1792 explored and surveyed the Columbia River for a hundred miles from its mouth; and in 1794 surveyed the north-west coast of America. Served in Lord Gambier’s expedition, 1809; at Mauritius, 1810, and at Java, 1811. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.

Brouillan, De. Born in France. Governor of Placentia, Newfoundland, 1690. Made a chevalier of St. Louis, 1698. In 1701 commandant in Acadia, and governor of that colony, 1702-1705. Died the latter year. Bib.: Charlevoix, History of New France.

Brown, George (1818-1880). Born at Alloa, Scotland. From his father he inherited his Liberalism and his hatred of slavery. Came to America with his father in 1838, and was associated with him in journalism in New York. In 1843 removed to Toronto, where he established the Banner, afterwards to be better known as the Globe. In its columns he began the fight for responsible government that occupied most of his energies for many years. In its first number he said: “The battle which the Reformers of Canada will fight is not the battle of a party, but the battle of constitutional right against the undue interference of executive power.” Joined Baldwin and others in the Toronto Reform Association, 1844. Supported Elgin in the matter of the Rebellion Losses Bill, 1849. Defeated in Haldimand by William Lyon Mackenzie. He had supported Baldwin, but when Hincks came into power he took issue with the government on the question of the secularization of the clergy reserves. Elected for Kent in 1851, on a platform that called for the separation of Church and State, secularization of the clergy reserves, establishment of a system of national schools, the extension of the franchise, and the improvement of transportation facilities. Rose to a commanding position in the Assembly by virtue of his industry and force of character. He rapidly became the apostle of Upper Canada as against Lower Canada. In 1854 defeated Malcolm Cameron in Lambton. Formed an alliance with the Quebec Rouges. Advocated representation by population. Elected for Toronto in 1857. The following year formed an administration. Defeated in the house, the government at once resigned. A strong advocate of Confederation. Defeated in East Toronto in 1861. Re-elected, and proposed a federation scheme of government either for Canada alone, or for all the British North American provinces. Became a member of the coalition government in 1864. Took an active part in the negotiations looking toward Confederation. Opposed an elective Senate. He was well satisfied with the results of the Quebec Conference. Became a convert to the Intercolonial Railway scheme. Made a strong speech in the legislature in support of Confederation. Supported the renewal of the reciprocity treaty, but objected to the way it had been handled, and resigned from ministry 1865. Urged the acquisition of the North West Territories from the Hudson’s Bay Company. In a public speech he said: “It is my fervent aspiration and belief that some here to-night may live to see the day when the British American flag shall proudly wave from Labrador to Vancouver Island and from our own Niagara to the shores of Hudson Bay.” In 1874 sent to Washington by the Mackenzie government to negotiate a reciprocity treaty. A draft treaty was prepared, but was thrown out by the United States Senate. Opposed the programme of the Canada First party the same year. He had been appointed to the Senate in 1873, but about this time decided to retire from public life and devote his energies entirely to journalism. Shot by George Bennett, an employee of the Globe who had been discharged for intemperance. Died May 10th, 1880. He was, says John Lewis, “true to the principles that were the standards of his political conduct, to government by the people, to free institutions, to religious liberty and equality, to the unity and progress of the Confederation of which he was one of the builders.” See also Responsible Government; Confederation; Reciprocity; Globe. Bib.: Lewis, George Brown; Mackenzie, Life and Speeches of the Hon. George Brown; Dent, Last Forty Years.

Brown, Harry. Private, 10th Battalion, C. E. F. Won the Victoria Cross at Hill 70, near Loos, August 16th, 1917. He saved the loss of an important position by carrying a message back through an intense barrage to the support lines. He was so badly wounded that he died in the dressing station a few hours later.

Brown, John Gordon (1827-1896). Brother of George Brown. Born in Scotland. Educated in Edinburgh and New York. In 1844 engaged on the Toronto Globe; in 1851 editor, and in 1880 managing director. In 1882 retired from the Globe; appointed registrar of the Surrogate Court of Toronto, 1883. Bib.: Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

Brown, Peter (1784-1863). Born in Scotland. Emigrated to New York in 1838; was owner and editor of the British Chronicle. Removed to Toronto, 1843, and founded the Banner, a Free-Church Presbyterian organ. In 1844 with his son, George Brown, established the Toronto Globe, and contributed to it for some years. Both before and after his emigration to America he was an enthusiastic supporter of the anti-slavery movement. Bib.: The Fame and Glory of England Vindicated. For biog. see Dict. Nat. Biog.; Dent, Can. Por.

Brown, Thomas Storrow. Associated with Papineau in the insurrection in Lower Canada. Led the Patriotes at St. Charles. Charged with cowardice, he defended his action in a letter to Wolfred Nelson (q.v.). Escaped to United States. Bib.: Christie, History of Lower Canada; DeCelles, Papineau, Cartier.

Brûlé, Etienne. A famous coureur de bois who accompanied Champlain on his exploration of the Ottawa, in 1615, and subsequently made extensive explorations in the country of the Hurons and the Iroquois (1615-1618). He reached the Susquehanna river; coasted along the north shore of Lake Huron; and there is evidence that a few years later he reached Lake Superior. In 1628 he came down to Quebec with a party of Hurons, and, for some unexplained reason, deserted to the English and piloted Kirke’s vessels up the St. Lawrence to Quebec. Treacherously murdered near the present town of Penetanguishene by a party of Hurons in 1632. Bib.: Champlain, Voyages; Sagard, Voyage du Pays des Hurons; Parkman, Pioneers of France; Butterfield, History of Brûlé’s Discoveries and Explorations; Sulte, Etienne Brûlé (R. S. C., 1907); Tremblay, Sépulture d’Etienne Brûlé (R. S. C., 1915).

Bruyas, James. Born in France. Came to Canada in 1666, and was sent as a missionary to the Iroquois. Remained there as Superior of the missions until 1679, and at Caughnawaga until 1691. In 1693 he succeeded Dablon as General Superior, and remained in that office until 1699. His good judgment and wide knowledge of the Iroquois made him invaluable to Frontenac and succeeding governors in their relations with the Indians. He was sent to Boston as an envoy of the governor of Quebec to arrange details of peace after the treaty of Ryswick; and in 1700 to the Iroquois to make a treaty. Died at Quebec in 1712. Bib.: Campbell, Pioneer Priests.

Bryce, George (1844-). Born at Mount Pleasant near Brantford, Ontario. Educated at Toronto University and Knox College. Took part in the skirmish at Ridgeway during the Fenian Raids. In 1871 removed to Manitoba and organized Manitoba College. Professor of English literature in Manitoba College, 1871-1909; and head of the faculty of science and lecturer in biology in Manitoba University, 1891-1904. Moderator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in Canada, 1902-1903. President of the Royal Society of Canada, 1909-1910. Bib.: Works: Manitoba; Short History of the Canadian People; Apostle of Red River; Hudson’s Bay Company; Romantic Settlement of Lord Selkirk’s Colonists; Mackenzie, Selkirk, Simpson. For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men.; Canadian Who’s Who.

Brymner, Douglas (1823-1902). Born in Scotland. Came to Canada, 1857. For some time editor of the Presbyterian, and associate editor of the Montreal Daily Herald. In 1872 appointed Dominion Archivist, and held the position up to the time of his death, laying the foundations of the present splendid collection of manuscript material bearing on the history of Canada. A Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

Buade, Louis de. See Frontenac.

Buchanan, Isaac (1810-1883). Born in Scotland. In 1833 emigrated to Canada and entered into business life. A Moderate Reformer. Strongly opposed the Rebellion of 1837. Elected for York to the first Parliament of Canada. Severely attacked Robert Baldwin in his Five Letters against the Baldwin Faction. In 1864 appointed president of the Council in the Taché-Macdonald ministry, retiring the same year. From 1878 to 1883 a Dominion arbitrator. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; Taylor, Brit. Am.; Dent, Last Forty Years.

Buck, William (1751-1832). Born at Hebron, Connecticut. A United Empire Loyalist. Early in the Revolutionary War made his way through the wilderness to Montreal, where he was given an ensign’s commission in the King’s Rangers. Served seven years. Twice taken prisoner and escaped. After the war removed to Upper Canada and settled on the site of Brockville, receiving a grant from the Crown. His was the first house in what became the town of Brockville. In 1800 elected to represent his county in the Assembly of Upper Canada. Bib.: McDonald, The United Empire Loyalists of the old Johnstown District (Ont. Hist. Soc. Papers, xii).

Bulkeley, Richard. Came to Nova Scotia with Governor Cornwallis, 1749. Appointed secretary of the province, 1759, and continued to hold office under thirteen successive governors, until 1793. Member of the Council of Nova Scotia, 1759. Administrator of Nova Scotia, 1791; judge of the Admiralty Court; brigadier-general of militia. Died, 1800. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia.

Buller, Charles (1806-1848). Born in Calcutta. Entered Parliament in 1830; and called to the bar, 1831. In 1838 secretary to Lord Durham and accompanied him on his momentous mission to Canada. He shared Durham’s views on colonial self-government, and is believed to have made material contributions to Durham’s Report. Advocated responsible government for Canada in the British Parliament. In 1846 judge advocate-general, and in 1847 chief poor law commissioner. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.; Strachey, Charles Buller; Bradshaw, Self-Government in Canada.

Bulletin des Recherches Historiques. Edited by Pierre-Georges Roy, Quebec. A monthly review, established 1895. In 1923 it became the official organ of the Bureau of Archives of the province of Quebec.

Bulyea, George Headley Vickers. Born in Gagetown, New Brunswick. Educated at University of New Brunswick. For a time principal of the Sunbury County Grammar School. Removed to Qu’Appelle, North-West Territories, 1883. Elected to the North-West-Council, 1894; special representative to the Yukon, 1896; commissioner of agriculture and public works in the Territorial government; appointed first lieutenant-governor of Alberta, 1905; reappointed in 1910. Bib.: Canadian Who’s Who.

Bureau des Archives de la Province de Quebec. Established, 1920. Pierre-Georges Roy (q.v.) first archivist. In addition to an annual report containing printed documents, facsimiles, calendars, etc., the Bureau is bringing out a general index to the Bulletin des Recherches Historiques, 1895-1925.

Burgoyne, John (1723-1792). Born in England. Educated at Westminster, and entered the army in 1740. In 1775 served in New England; second in command, 1776, and lieutenant-general, 1777. In the latter year succeeded General Carleton as commander-in-chief of the forces in Canada. After several successful engagements with the Americans, hopelessly defeated at Saratoga in October, 1777. In 1782 commander-in-chief in Ireland. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.

Burlington Bay Canal. An open cut across a sand-bar at the entrance of Burlington Bay, designed to enable vessels to reach the city of Hamilton from the lake. It was authorized by the Legislature, 1823, and completed, 1832. Enlarged, 1841.

Burns, Robert Easton (1805-1863). Born in Niagara. Called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1827. Practised at Niagara, St. Catharines, and Hamilton. Appointed judge of the Niagara District, 1836; judge of the Home District, 1844; judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1850. Bib.: Read, Lives of the Judges.

Burpee, Isaac (1825-1885). Born at Sheffield, New Brunswick, of Huguenot and Puritan stock; his great-grandfather settled in New Brunswick in 1763. He moved to St. John, 1848. Represented City of St. John in Dominion Parliament, 1872-1885; minister of customs in the Mackenzie government, 1873-1878. Died in New York. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.

Burr, Aaron (1756-1836). Born in New Jersey. In 1775 served in the Revolutionary army, and accompanied Arnold on his expedition to Quebec. In 1791 elected to the Senate, and in 1801 vice-president of the United States. In 1804 killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; Jenkinson, Aaron Burr; Todd, The True Aaron Burr.

Burstall, Sir Henry Edward (1870-). Born at Quebec. Educated Bishop’s College, Lennoxville, and the Royal Military College. Served with First Contingent in South Africa, 1899-1900, and with South African Constabulary, 1901-1904, including actions at Paardeberg, Poplar Grove, Driefontein, etc. Appointed to command of Royal Canadian Horse Artillery, 1907; and of Royal Canadian Artillery, 1911; Inspector of Horse, Field and Heavy Artillery, 1911; command of Royal School of Artillery, Quebec, 1911. Went overseas in 1914 as officer commanding Division Artillery with rank of lieutenant-colonel. Promoted, brigadier-general, 1915, and major-general, 1916. Commanded Canadian artillery at Ypres, Festubert and Givenchy, and later battles. Commanded a division in 1917, and in the battle of Amiens had command of the extreme left.

Burton, Sir Francis. Lieutenant-governor of Lower Canada, and acting governor during the absence of Dalhousie in 1825. He attempted to meet the views of the Assembly as to the budget, but his action was repudiated by Dalhousie. Bib.: DeCelles, Papineau, Cartier.

Burton, Sir George William. Born at Sandwich, England, 1818; son of Admiral George Guy Burton. Came to Canada, 1836. Practised law in Hamilton and for many years city solicitor. In 1874 appointed a judge of the Court of Appeals of Ontario, and in 1897 made chief-justice. Knighted, 1897. Bib.: Gardiner, Nothing but Names.

Burton, Napier Christie (1759-1835). United Empire Loyalist. Served through the Revolutionary War. Taken prisoner in the siege of Yorktown. After the war promoted to lieutenant-colonel and served in Flanders. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, 1799. Represented Beverley in the British Parliament to 1806. Promoted lieutenant-general, 1805, and general, 1814. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Burton, Ralph. Served in the siege of Quebec. On July 29th, 1759, in command of thirteen companies of Grenadiers, and on September 2nd wounded at the battle of Montmorency. Commanded the reserve in the battle of the Plains. Wolfe’s last order was to Burton, to seize the bridge over the St. Charles and cut off the retreat. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Quebec after the capture of the city. He took part in the battle of Ste. Foy the following year. Served with his regiment in the siege of Havana. Returned to Canada in 1763. Governor of Three Rivers, and later of Montreal. Bib.: Doughty, Siege of Quebec; Wood, The Fight for Canada.

Bury, William Coutts Keppel, Viscount (1832-1894). Private secretary to Lord John Russell, 1850. Superintendent-general for Indian Affairs for Canada, 1854-1856. In 1855 negotiated a treaty with the Indians for the purpose of opening the Saugeen reserve to settlement. Left his numerous family names tagged to townships, villages and natural features of the district. Succeeded his father as seventh Earl of Albemarle. Under-secretary of war, 1887-1880. Bib.: Gardiner, Nothing but Names.

Buteux, Jacques (1600-1652). Born in France. In 1634 sent as a missionary to Canada, and arrived at the new settlement of Three Rivers in September. Worked among the Indians there for several years. Superior of the missions from 1639 to 1642, and from 1647 to 1652. Bib.: Charlevoix, History of New France; Campbell, Pioneer Priests.

Butler, John. Born in Connecticut. In 1759 served under Sir William Johnson in the Niagara campaign, and in 1760 in the Montreal expedition. During the Revolution served on the British side in New York and in Canada as commander of Butler’s Rangers. He has been charged with gross cruelty, particularly in the conduct of the raid on Wyoming. The evidence seems to show that there was cruelty on both sides. After the war he took up land on the Niagara peninsula. Appointed superintendent of Indian affairs. Died in Niagara in 1794. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; McIlwraith, Haldimand; Sabine, Loyalists.

Button, Sir Thomas. Sailed from England for Hudson Bay in April, 1612. His letter of instructions from Henry, Prince of Wales, contained minute directions as to the best means of making the North-West Passage, and King James gave him a Letter of Credence addressed to the Emperor of Japan, so confident was the expectation that Button would find the long-sought passage. Sailing through Hudson Straits, he crossed the Bay and sailed down its western coast to the mouth of the Nelson river, where he wintered. In the spring of 1613 he turned north again and followed the coast up to Chesterfield Inlet and almost to Wager Bay. He then returned through the Straits and sailed home. Bib.: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

By, John (1781-1836). Born in England. Entered the army in 1799. In 1802 came to Canada; returned to England in 1811; and served in the Peninsular War. In 1826 again came to Canada, and engaged on important military and engineering works until 1832. Constructed the Rideau Canal from Bytown (Ottawa) to Kingston, the first steamer passing through in the spring of 1832. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Dict. Nat. Biog.; Women’s Can. Hist. Soc. of Ottawa, Trans., vol. 1.

Byles, Mather (1706-1788). Born in Boston. Graduated from Harvard, 1725. Denounced as a Loyalist in 1777. Imprisoned and sentenced to banishment, but the sentence was never carried out. He was a scholar and a famous wit. His son of the same names (1734-1814) went to Halifax in 1776, settled in St. John, N.B., became first rector of Trinity Church, and chaplain of the province, and died in St. John. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Bylot, Robert. Sailed with Henry Hudson on the Discovery in 1610, and returned with the mutineers to England. Took part in two later voyages to the north-west before he sailed with Baffin (q.v.) to Hudson Strait in 1615. Bib.: Rundall, Voyages Toward the North-West.

Byng of Vimy, Baron (1862-). Saw active service in the Soudan, South Africa and Egypt. Commanded Third Division in France, Ninth Corps at the Dardanelles, the Canadian Corps in France, and finally the Third British Army. Promoted general. Appointed governor-general of Canada, 1921. He had won the respect and admiration of the Canadian troops in France, and his appointment was universally popular in Canada. In a public address he expressed his views as to the attitude of a governor-general: “Loyalty to the King, political impartiality, and unbounded faith in whatever government may be in power, are the three qualities I am bound to exemplify in carrying out the duties of governor-general.”

Bytown. Former name of the city of Ottawa. In 1858 the rival towns of Quebec, Montreal, Kingston and Toronto all clamoring for the right to be the capital of Canada, the matter was referred to the Queen who, on the recommendation of Sir Edmund Head, passed them all by and chose Bytown. See also Ottawa. Bib.: Women’s Can. Hist. Soc. of Ottawa, Trans., vol. 1.

Cables. The first submarine cables in America were those laid between New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, 1851; and between Cape Breton and Newfoundland, 1856. Newfoundland was connected with Ireland by cable in 1858. In 1902 the Pacific Cable was laid, between Canada and New Zealand and Australia. See also Gisborne; Fleming. Bib.: Bright, Submarine Telegraphs; Johnson, The All Red Line.

Cabot, John. Probably a native of Genoa. Became a citizen of Venice, March 28th, 1476, and at that time had been a resident of the city for fifteen years. Went to England, and in 1497, under the direct authority of Henry VII, sailed to the westward on a voyage of discovery. Landed on the shores of America, but his exact landfall has been a moot point. It is now generally believed that it was the easternmost cape of Cape Breton. The following year sailed again, but there is no record that he ever returned from this second voyage. Bib.: Beazley, John and Sebastian Cabot; Dawson, The Voyages of the Cabots (R. S. C., 1894, 1896, 1897); Deane, Voyages of the Cabots, in Winsor, Nar. & Cr. Hist. of America, vol. 3; Harrisse, John Cabot, the Discoverer of North America; Weare, Cabot’s Discovery of North America; Ober, John and Sebastian Cabot.

Cabot, Sebastian (1477?-1557?). Son of John Cabot. His share in the discovery of North America has been the subject of much controversy. From having once been regarded as the sole discoverer, it is now considered doubtful that he had anything to do with the voyages of 1497 and 1498. He was in the service of Spain, and also of England, receiving from Edward VI the title of Grand Pilot of England. Bib.: Biddle, Memoir of Sebastian Cabot; Nicholls, Life of Sebastian Cabot; Tarducci, John and Sebastian Cabot. These are favourable to Sebastian’s claims. See references under preceding entry for the other side of the controversy.

Cadet, Joseph Michel. Began life as a butcher; won the confidence of the intendant Bigot, and as commissary-general seconded him in his infamous schemes for plundering the colony. See Bigot.

Cadieux. A French coureur de bois, whose tragic death forms the subject of one of the popular chansons of Quebec. His reputed grave is at the foot of Grand Calumet Island, on the Ottawa. Bib.: Le Moine, Legends of the St. Lawrence; Bourinot, The Ottawa Valley in the Canadian Monthly, January, 1875; Gagnon, Chansons Populaires.

Cadillac, Antoine de la Mothe. Came to Canada as an officer of the Carignan Regiment. Settled in Acadia. Losing his property there by English incursions, he moved to Quebec, 1691, and Frontenac gave him an appointment in the colonial troops. In 1694 appointed to the command of the post of Michilimackinac. In 1701 built a fort at Detroit, and remained in command there until 1710. From 1712-1715 governor of Louisiana. Subsequently appointed governor of Castel Sarassin, in Gascony, his native province. Died there October 16th, 1730. Bib.: Parkman, Old Régime; Cadillac Papers (Mich. Hist. Coll., vol. 33); Wis. Hist. Coll., xvi; Burton, Sketch of the Life of Cadillac; Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin; Docs. relating to Col. Hist. of New York, 1855.

Cadotte, Jean-Baptiste. Pioneer fur trader in the west. When the French abandoned their fort at Sault Ste. Marie, Cadotte remained behind with his native wife and family. Alexander Henry found him there in 1762; in charge of the fort when Carver visited the place five years later. Died there in 1803. Bib.: Henry, Travels and Adventures in Canada; Carver, Travels through the Interior Parts of North America; Morice, Dict.; Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii.

Caën, Emery de. Nephew of Guillaume. Champlain left him in command of the little colony of Canada when he returned to France in 1624. Although a Calvinist, he was friendly to the Jesuits. In 1629, on his way down the river, his vessel was captured by Kirke. He returned to France, and came back to Canada in 1632 with an order from King Charles to Kirke to hand Quebec over to the French. Bib.: Douglas, Quebec in Seventeenth Century; Biggar, Early Trading Companies of New France; Kirke, The First English Conquest of Canada.

Caën, Guillaume de. A Huguenot. Head of the trading company organized by Montmorency. Came out to Canada, where difficulties at once arose with Pont-Gravé and the old Company of Rouen and St. Malo, which Champlain managed to smooth over. De Caën made several voyages to France and back to Canada with men and supplies. In 1625 he brought out with him the Jesuits Lalement, Brébeuf and Massé. Kirke seized his goods in 1629, which led to a long and bitter controversy in which the French and English courts were involved. Bib.: Douglas, Quebec in Seventeenth Century; Biggar, Early Trading Companies of New France; Kirke, The First English Conquest of Canada.

Cahokia. A French settlement on the upper Mississippi, opposite St. Louis and above Fort Chartres. A road connected it with Kaskaskia some miles lower down. It was the scene of Pontiac’s murder in 1769. Parkman described it as it still existed in his day. Bib.: Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac.

Cairns, Hugh. Sergeant, 46th Battalion, C. E. F. Victoria Cross. On the 1st of November, 1918, before Valenciennes, when a machine gun opened on his platoon, he seized a Lewis gun and single-handed, in the face of direct fire, rushed the enemy post, disposed of the crew and captured the gun. Later he attacked another post, capturing eighteen of the enemy and two guns, and led a small party to outflank a nest of machine and field guns, capturing all the guns and about fifty men. Finally he was rushed by about twenty enemy, and, having already been severely wounded, collapsed from weakness and loss of blood. He died the following day.

Caldwell, Henry. Commanded British militia in Quebec during siege by Montgomery. His home burnt by Arnold. Bib.: Lemoine, The Hon. Henry Caldwell, L.C., at Quebec.

Caldwell, Sir John, Bt. Eldest son of Sir James Caldwell, the third baronet. Succeeded his father, 1784. Appointed receiver-general of Lower Canada, and found to have misappropriated the public funds. Made restoration afterwards of the greater part of the amount. Died in England, 1830. Bib.: Christie, History of Lower Canada; Morgan, Cel. Can.

Calgary. A city of Alberta. Founded originally as a post of the North-West Mounted Police in 1875, and named Fort Brisebois; name changed to Fort Calgary following year. Incorporated as a town, 1884.

Callières, Louis-Hector de (1646?-1703). Born at Cherbourg, son of Jacques de Callières, governor of Cherbourg. Entered the army, and became captain of the regiment of Navarre. In 1684 came to Canada as governor of Montreal; and in 1699 appointed governor-general of the colony. Author of a memorandum on the French claims in Hudson Bay. Commanded regular troops in attack on the Iroquois, 1687. Sent to France to represent situation of the colony. In 1690 he led eight hundred men from Montreal to Quebec to help defend Quebec from the attack of Phipps. Commanded the vanguard in the attack on the Onondagas in 1696. Died at Quebec. Bib.: Sulte, La Famille de Callières (R. S. C, 1890); Parkman, Half Century of Conflict.

Cambrai, Battle of. September 27th to October 9th, 1918. It had been determined that the Third and Fourth Armies were to make a concerted attack on the Canal du Nord and Cambrai, and the Canadians had the honour of being selected as the “spearhead.” Their business was to fight their way across the canal and capture Bourlon Wood (q.v.). Having achieved that, as well as surmounting the formidable obstacle of the Canal du Nord, the next few days were spent in paving the way for the final assault on Cambrai. Five days’ fighting had resulted for the Canadians in the gain of much valuable ground, as well as seven thousand prisoners and over two hundred guns. After a short rest, they resumed the attack, and at one o’clock on the morning of the ninth had crossed the Scheldt, pressed on through some of the outlying villages, and “by the full dawn they had cleared the enemy out of the big triangle, twenty miles square, formed by the Sensée and the Scheldt.” The Germans had evacuated the city during the night. Canadian infantry and engineers took possession of the place, and were in time to prevent its destruction by fire. Bib.: Canada in the Great World War.

Cameron, David. Brought up as a draper; drifted to the West Indies, where he had charge of an estate; and thence to New Caledonia. In 1852 superintendent of the coal mines at Nanaimo. Nominated by Douglas as chief-justice of Vancouver Island, 1853, and the appointment confirmed by the colonial office the same year. Succeeded by Needham in 1858. Retired from the bench, 1864. Died at Belmont, Vancouver Island, 1872. Bib.: Bancroft, History of British Columbia.

Cameron, Sir Douglas Colin (1854-1921). Represented Fort William in Ontario Legislature, 1902-1905. Unsuccessful candidate for Winnipeg, Dominion election, 1908. Lieutenant-governor of Manitoba, 1911. Bib.: Who’s Who.

Cameron, Duncan. Son of a United Empire Loyalist; born at Schenectady, on the Mohawk. His father brought the family to Canada, and settled in Glengarry. The son entered the service of the North West Company in 1786, and was for many years in charge of the Nipigon district. In 1814 sent to Red River to oppose Selkirk’s plans, and succeeded in winning some of the colonists over to the side of the Nor’Westers. Took them to Upper Canada. In 1816, before the Seven Oaks affair, seized by Colin Robertson of the Hudson’s Bay Company, carried to York Factory, and sent to England, where he was promptly released. Returned to Canada, settled at Williamstown, and represented Glengarry from 1820 to 1824 in the Assembly of Upper Canada. Bib.: Bryce, Manitoba and Hudson’s Bay Company; Laut, Conquest of the Great North-West; Masson, Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest. Cameron’s Sketch of the Customs, etc., of the Natives in the Nipigon Country, and Nipigon Journal, 1804-1805, are in Masson, vol. 2.

Cameron, John Hillyard (1817-1876). Solicitor-general, Upper Canada, 1846-1848; represented Cornwall in Legislative Assembly, 1846-1847 and 1848-1851; Toronto, 1854; Peel, 1861-1866. Opposed Confederation. Proposed an appeal to the people. Represented Peel in first Dominion Parliament, 1867-1872; Cornwall, 1872-1874; and 1874-1876. Bib.: Dent, Last Forty Years.

Cameron, Malcolm (1808-1876). Elected to Assembly of Upper Canada for Lanark, 1836. A persistent opponent of Sir F. B. Head and the Family Compact. Appointed inspector of revenue, under Bagot. Held various offices in the LaFontaine-Baldwin and Hincks administrations. One of the Clear Grits. President of the Executive Council, 1851. Opposed George Brown in Kent and Lambton. Minister of agriculture, and in 1853 postmaster-general. He advocated complete secularization of the Clergy Reserves, and opposed Catholic Separate Schools. In 1863 resigned his seat to accept appointment as Queen’s Printer. Represented South Lanark in Dominion House, 1874-1876. Bib.: Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.; Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years; Morgan, Cel. Can.

Cameron, Sir Matthew Crooks (1822-1887). Born in Dundas, Ontario. Educated at the Home District Grammar School, Toronto, and at Upper Canada College; studied law and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1849. Sat in the Assembly for North Ontario, 1861-1863 and 1864-1867. Defeated in North Ontario for election to the House of Commons, 1867. Elected to the Ontario Assembly for East Toronto; provincial secretary, 1867-1871; commissioner of crown lands, 1871-1872; leader of the opposition in the Assembly, 1872-1876. Appointed judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1878; chief-justice of the Common Pleas Division of the High Court of Justice, 1884. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Rattray, The Scot in British North America; Read, Lives of the Judges.

Camosun. See Victoria.

Campbell, Sir Alexander (1821-1892). Studied law under John A. Macdonald, with whom he later formed a partnership; and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1843. Elected to the Legislative Council, 1858; and Speaker, 1863. Commissioner of crown lands, 1864-1866. A delegate to the Charlottetown Conference, and the Quebec Conference. Postmaster-general in first Dominion ministry, 1867-1873. In 1870 sent to England to confer with the Imperial government as to the proposed withdrawal of troops from Canada, the Fenian Raids, and other matters. In 1872 attempted to merge the two rival Canadian Pacific Railway syndicates. Minister of the interior, 1873; receiver-general, 1878-1879; postmaster-general, 1879-1880, 1880-1881, 1885-1887; minister of militia and defence, 1880; minister of justice, 1881-1885. In 1887 appointed lieutenant-governor of Ontario, an office which he retained up to the time of his death. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Taylor, Brit. Am.; Read, Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada.

Campbell, Sir Archibald (1769-1843). Born in Scotland. Entered the army, 1787. Served throughout the Peninsular War, 1808-1814; in 1821 commanded a regiment in India; conducted the Burmese War; and 1826-1829, governor of British Burmah. From 1831 to 1837 lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick. Came into conflict with the Assembly over the questions of crown lands, revenues and the Civil List bill. Dissolved the House in 1834. Opposed to political reform. Resigned, 1836. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.; Hannay, History of New Brunswick.

Campbell, Sir Colin (1776-1847). Served in India, 1801-1804, and afterwards in Denmark and the Peninsula; attached to Wellington’s staff at the battle of Waterloo; promoted major-general, 1825; lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1834-1840. He managed to antagonize the popular party in the Assembly, and his removal was asked for at the instance of Joseph Howe. Governor of Ceylon, 1839-1847. Bib.: Letters and Speeches. For biog., see Dict. Nat. Biog.; Chisholm, Speeches and Public Letters of Joseph Howe; Campbell, History of Nova Scotia; Saunders, Three Premiers of Nova Scotia. See also Joseph Howe.

Campbell, Frederick William. Lieutenant, 1st Battalion, C. E. F. Victoria Cross. During the action at Givenchy, June 15th, 1915, he took two machine-guns over the parapet, arrived at the German first line with one gun, and held his position there under very heavy rifle, machine-gun and bomb fire, notwithstanding the fact that almost the whole of his detachment had been killed or wounded. Later he moved his gun forward to an exposed position and, by firing about one thousand rounds, succeeded in holding back the enemy’s counter-attack. Subsequently died from wounds.

Campbell, Robert (1808-1894). A Perthshire Highlander by birth, he entered the service of Hudson’s Bay Company, 1832, and was sent to the Mackenzie River district, 1834. For the next eighteen years engaged in exploring the upper waters of the Liard and Yukon Rivers, and establishing the fur trade in this region. Built Fort Dease in 1838, and made his way to the Pacific by way of the Stikine. In 1842 he ascended the north branch of the Liard to Lake Frances, crossed the divide and reached the headwaters of the Pelly, a tributary of the Yukon. In 1843 he reached the junction of the Pelly and the Lewes, and five years later he built Fort Yukon at the forks, and descended the Yukon to the mouth of the Porcupine. In 1852 made a remarkable journey on snowshoes, from Fort Simpson to Crow-wing, Minnesota, about three thousand miles. Became a chief factor, 1867, and retired from the service of the Company, 1871. Bib.: Discovery and Exploration of the Youcon River. For biog., see Bryce, Sketch of the Life and Discoveries of Robert Campbell and Hudson’s Bay Company; Laut, Conquest of the Great North-West; Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

Campbell, Stewart. Leader of the Anti-Confederation party in Nova Scotia. Elected to the House of Commons for Guysborough in 1867. Afterwards supported Confederation. Bib.: Saunders, Three Premiers of Nova Scotia.

Campbell, Lord William. Youngest son of the fourth Duke of Argyle. Governor of Nova Scotia, 1766-1773. Last Royal governor of South Carolina, 1775-1778. Wounded in the attack on Charleston and died September, 1778.

Campbell, Sir William (1758-1834). Born in Scotland. Enlisted as a private in a Highland regiment; came to America during the Revolutionary War; took part in the battle of Yorktown, 1781; after his release determined to remain in America. Studied law and called to the bar of Nova Scotia; practised his profession for nineteen years; elected to the Assembly of Cape Breton; became attorney-general. Appointed to a puisne judgeship in Upper Canada, 1811; chief-justice, 1825; retired, 1829; knighted, 1829. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Read, Lives of the Judges.

Campbell, Major William. Placed by Simcoe in command of the fort above the rapids of the Miami in 1794. When General Wayne appeared before the fort with a large force, he refused to abandon it.

Campobello. An island, about eight miles long, in Passamaquoddy Bay, Bay of Fundy. Granted by Lord William Campbell, governor of Nova Scotia, about 1770, to Captain William Owen, father of Admiral Owen. Captain Owen named it partly as a complimentary punning on the name of the governor, and partly because it describes the fine appearance of the island. Under the Convention of 1817 this island, as well as Grand Manan and Deer Island, were assigned to Canada. The United States had claimed all three. Bib.: Atlas of Canada.

Canada. Several theories as to origin of name. Probably derived from the Indian word kanata meaning a village, but supposed by the French to refer to the country. Discovered by John Cabot in 1497. First settlement made by Jacques Cartier, in 1535, on the banks of the St. Charles. In 1608 Champlain founded the city of Quebec, almost on the spot where Jacques Cartier had wintered; the country ceded to Great Britain by France, by the treaty of Paris, 1763; civil government provided by Quebec Act, 1774; and a measure of responsible government by the Constitutional Act, 1791; invasion by Americans, 1775-1776; War of 1812; Rebellions of 1837-1838, in Upper and Lower Canada; union of Upper and Lower Canada, 1841; Confederation of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, 1867; Rupert’s Land acquired from the Hudson’s Bay Company, and Manitoba added to the Dominion, 1870; British Columbia, 1871; Prince Edward Island, 1873; provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta created, 1905. Present area, 3,729,665 square miles. At the time of its cession to England, Canada comprised the territory west to the Mississippi and south to the Ohio. By the Treaty of 1783 it was restricted to what was later known as Upper and Lower Canada, the boundary running through the Great Lakes except Michigan. Confederation added the Maritime Provinces except Prince Edward Island, and subsequently that province was added, and the immense territory west to the Pacific and north to the Arctic. By Imperial Acts of 1880 and 1895 the Arctic Islands were added to the Dominion insofar as Great Britain had a title to them. Population middle of seventeenth century less than one thousand; in 1670 about six thousand; in 1760 about 70,000; in 1806, Upper and Lower Canada, 320,000; in 1851, Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, 2,313,000; in 1871 (first Dominion census), 3,485,761; in 1921, 8,788,483. See also New France; Carrier, Jacques; Cabot, John; Champlain; Quebec Act; Constitutional Act; Union Act; Upper Canada; Lower Canada; Confederation; Arctic Islands; and under names of the various provinces. Bib.: Ami, Canada and Newfoundland; Lucas and Egerton, Historical Geography of Canada; Kingsford, History of Canada; Parkman, France and England in North America; Tracy, Tercentenary History of Canada; Garneau, Histoire du Canada; Ferland, Cours d’Histoire du Canada; Lucas, History of Canada, 1763-1812; Bourinot, Canada under British Rule; Wrong, Canada; Atlas of Canada; Burpee, Historical Atlas of Canada.

Canada Act. See Constitutional Act.

Canada Company. Founded in London, 1824, by John Galt, as a colonizing scheme. A large tract of land was purchased in what is now western Ontario. Dunlop, Talbot, Strickland, and other pioneers of Upper Canada were associated with Galt in the enterprise. The company is still in existence. See also Galt, John; Dunlop, William; Talbot, Thomas. Bib.: Lizars, In the Days of the Canada Company; Strickland, Twenty-seven Years in Canada West; Galt, Autobiography; Jameson, Winter Sketches; Talbot, Six Years in the Canadas; McTaggart, Three Years in Upper Canada; Dunlop, The Backwoodsman.

Canada First Association. Organized in 1874 by a group of men of whom Goldwin Smith was one. William A. Foster was a leading spirit. Others were Charles Mair, John Schultz, George T. Denison, J. C. Halliburton, and Henry J. Morgan. Its platform embraced British connection, closer trade relations with the British West Indies, an income franchise, the ballot and compulsory voting, a scheme for the representation of minorities, encouragement of immigration, reorganization of the Senate, an improved militia system, a revenue tariff that would encourage native industries, no property qualification for members of the House of Commons. Above all it aimed at the cultivation of a vigorous national Canadian spirit. Bib.: Lewis, George Brown; Dent, Last Forty Years; Canada First; A Memorial of the Late William A. Foster; Denison, The Struggle for Imperial Unity.

Canada Trade Act. Passed by Imperial Parliament in 1822, with the object of correcting the injustice to Upper Canada in the apportionment of duties collected. The Quebec Legislature had refused to re-enact the old Acts apportioning a share of duties to Upper Canada, and these Acts were now made permanent. Lower Canada was debarred from imposing new duties on imports by sea without the consent of Upper Canada and the approval of the Imperial Parliament. See also Customs. Bib.: Kingsford, History of Canada.

Canada Year Books. In November, 1866, a year-book was published at Montreal, edited by Arthur Harvey, of the Department of Finance, Ottawa. It was for the year 1867, and was introduced with these words: “In view of the approaching Confederation of the British Provinces in North America and the prospect of their extending their commercial relations with each other and with foreign parts, a handbook of common information respecting them seems to be required.” The Canada Year Book ceased publication with the volume for 1877. In 1878 Henry J. Morgan established the Dominion Annual Register and Review, which he edited and published up to 1887. In 1886 the Canadian government began publication of an official year book under the title Statistical Abstract and Record of Canada, later changed to The Statistical Year Book of Canada, and which still continues under the title of The Canada Year Book. It was edited first by George Johnson, subsequently by Archibald Blue, Ernest H. Godfrey, and S. A. Cudmore.

Canadian Alliance Society. Founded at York in 1834, with James Lesslie as president and William Lyon Mackenzie as secretary. Among its objects were responsible government, abolition of the Legislative Council, more equable taxation of property, abolition of the law of primogeniture, separation of Church and State, secularization of the Clergy Reserves, cheap postage, improved libel and jury laws, non-interference of the Colonial Office in local provincial affairs.

Canadian Bank of Commerce. Established in the year of Confederation, 1867. Head office in Toronto. Over 660 branches throughout Canada, and in Newfoundland, the West Indies, etc. Capital, $15,000,000, and Reserve, $15,000,000. Has absorbed the Bank of British Columbia, Eastern Townships Bank, Bank of Hamilton, and several others. Sir Edmund Walker, who had entered the service of the bank in 1868, became its president in 1907 and held that position up to the time of his death. Bib.: Ross, History of the Canadian Bank of Commerce.

Canadian Boat Songs. Of two famous boat songs, one was written by Thomas Moore in 1804. The Irish poet had been appointed registrar of the Admiralty in Bermuda in 1803, but remained only a few months, and on his way home made a tour through eastern Canada in the course of which he wrote the poem beginning:

“Faintly as tolls the evening chime,

Our voices keep tune and our oars keep time.”

The authorship of the other and more famous boat song has been a matter of controversy for many years, and it is not probable that it will ever be known definitely who wrote those haunting lines: