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“From the lone sheiling of the misty island

Mountains divide us and a waste of seas—

Yet still the blood is strong, the heart is Highland,

And we in dreams behold the Hebrides.”

The poem, which first appeared in “Noctes Ambrosianae” in Blackwoods Magazine, September, 1829, has been attributed to John Galt, James Hogg (the Ettrick Shepherd), Professor John Wilson (Christopher North), Sir Walter Scott, John Gibson Lockhart (Scott’s son-in-law), Hugh, Lord Eglinton, and William Dunlop. Bib.: Hervey, The Lone Sheiling; Fraser, The Canadian Boat Song.

Canadian Contingents in the Boer War (1899-1902). Consisted of the Royal Canadian Infantry, Canadian Mounted Rifles, Royal Canadian Artillery, and Strathcona’s Horse. The first contingent, Which sailed for South Africa from Quebec, October 30th, 1899, numbered 1,141. The second contingent, which sailed from Halifax in January and February, 1900, mustered 1,320. These two contingents comprised the official Canadian contribution to the British forces in the war, but Lord Strathcona also raised a contingent at his own expense. This contingent, known as Strathcona’s Horse, sailed from Halifax in March, 1900, the force numbering 540 officers and men, and 599 horses. Over 3,000 Canadians therefore took part in the war against the Boers. Throughout the operations in South Africa, the Canadians signally distinguished themselves, particularly at the battle of Paardeberg on February 27th, 1900, when with the Gordon Highlanders and the Shropshires they led the final attack on Cronje’s position. See Paardeberg; Mafeking; Poplar Grove; Israel’s Poort; Strathcona’s Horse. Bib.: Evans, The Canadian Contingents; Marquis, Canada’s Sons on Kopje and Veldt; Doyle, The Great Boer War.

Canadian Historical Association. Developed in 1922 out of the Historic Landmarks Association of Canada, which itself had been organized in 1907 at a joint meeting of Sections I and II of the Royal Society of Canada. The immediate object of the parent organization had been to further the celebration of the Tercentenary of Quebec in 1908, and its wider purpose to encourage the preservation and marking of the historic landmarks of Canada. The objects of the present Association are to encourage historic research and public interest in history; to promote the preservation of historic sites, buildings, documents, etc.; and to publish historical studies and documents. The presidents have been Lawrence J. Burpee, 1922-1924; Hon. Thomas Chapais, 1925.

Canadian Historical Manuscripts Commission. Established 1907, the original members being Hon. Sydney Fisher, Archdeacon Armytage, Professor Shortt, Archdeacon Raymond, Professor Wrong, Professor Colby and Dr. Doughty. It was created for the purpose of advising the Dominion Archivist in the administration of the Public Archives. By selecting representative men from various parts of the country it was felt that the interests of the country as a whole and of the various provinces would be safeguarded. On the outbreak of the War the work of the Commission was interrupted. Since then individual members have been called upon from time to time for advice as to matters affecting their own parts of the Dominion.

Canadian Historical Review. A quarterly, established in 1920, as a continuation in another form of the Review of Historical Publications relating to Canada founded, 1896, by George M. Wrong (q.v.) as an annual. Managing editor of the quarterly, W. S. Wallace.

Canadian History Society. Organized in London, 1923, with the Duke of Connaught as president, the Dowager Countess of Minto as vice-president, and H. P. Biggar as secretary, for the discovery and preservation of new material bearing upon the history of Canada, particularly unpublished private papers and correspondence of families formerly connected with the public life of the country. Membership limited to descendants or representatives of such families. Branches formed in England, France and Canada. One of the activities is a series of biographies by competent scholars, to be prepared under the general editorship of John Buchan.

Canadian Institute. Founded at Toronto, June 20th, 1849, by Sandford Fleming and Kivas Tully, with several other surveyors, civil engineers and architects practising in and about Toronto. A royal charter was granted November 4th, 1851, in which the objects of the society are declared to be “the encouragement and general advancement of the physical sciences, the arts and the manufactures,” etc. Among the early presidents were Sir W. E. Logan, Sir Henry Lefroy, Sir John Beverley Robinson, George W. Allan, W. H. Draper, Sir Daniel Wilson and Sir Oliver Mowat. With it was amalgamated in 1885 the Natural History Society of Toronto, founded in 1878 and incorporated in 1882. The publications of the Institute began with the Canadian Journal, 1852, and have been continued, as Proceedings, Transactions, etc., to the present time. Bib.: The Canadian Journal, 1852-1878; Proceedings, 1879-1890; Transactions, 1890. A semi-centennial memorial volume, published 1899, contains Early Days of the Canadian Institute by Sir Sandford Fleming.

Canadian National Railways. Authorized by Order-in-Council in 1918, and by Act of Parliament in 1919, as a collective title for the group of railways then brought under government ownership, the Canadian Government Railways, the National Transcontinental, the Grand Trunk Pacific, and the Canadian Northern. In 1919 the Grand Trunk System was also brought into the system of state-owned railways. Total mileage of the combined railways over 20,500 in 1925. The capital liability of the combined roads is $2,207,502,000. See also Intercolonial; Grand Trunk; Grand Trunk Pacific; Canadian Northern.

Canadian Northern Railway. The first link in this transcontinental railway dates back to 1896, when construction was commenced on the line from Gladstone towards Lake Winnipegosis. Assisted by the Manitoba government, the Canadian Northern secured the Manitoba lines of the Northern Pacific, and in 1902 completed its line from Winnipeg to Port Arthur. The system was extended east and west, and within a few years reached from the Atlantic to the Pacific, with numerous branches. Became part of Canadian National Railways in 1919. Bib.: Historical Sketch of the Canadian Northern Railway in Canadian Annual Review, 1906; Hanna, Trains of Recollection; Skelton, The Railway Builders.

Canadian Pacific Railway. The contract for construction of the railway was signed October 21st, 1880, the surveys having already been carried out under the direction of Sandford Fleming (q.v.). Work was begun on the railway in May, 1881, and the last spike driven by Donald A. Smith (afterwards Lord Strathcona) (q.v.) on November 7th, 1885. This was the culmination of a long movement for a transcontinental railway across Canada. George Johnson in his Alphabet of First Things in Canada traces the evolution of the idea from the search for an overland route to the Pacific in the days of New France down to the various suggested transportation projects, first for a waggon road across the continent, then for a water thoroughfare, then for a combined water and rail route, then for a railway from Lake Superior to the Pacific, and finally for a transcontinental railway from Montreal to the Pacific. Under the terms of union, British Columbia had been promised, in 1870, railway connection with the east. The following year two companies were chartered, and these were finally merged in a third, which was to receive a heavy subsidy from the government for building the railway. The Pacific Scandal (q.v.) followed, and the downfall of the Macdonald government. The Mackenzie government adopted the policy of government ownership, but on Macdonald’s return to power in 1878 he reverted to the original plan, and two years later the contract was signed for construction of the railway, the company receiving a Dominion subsidy of $25,000,000 and a land grant of 25,000,000 acres. Pessimistic views were held in many quarters as to the success of such a gigantic undertaking in a sparsely settled country but, although the early years of the road were extremely difficult, it ultimately more than realized the dreams of the men of vision who had stood behind it. The railway to-day has a mileage of 13,600, controls fleets of steamers on the Atlantic, Pacific and the Great Lakes, besides many other interests, and the capital of the company is $677,582,000. Bib.: Skelton, The Railway Builders; McLean, National Highways Overland (in Canada and its Provinces); Hopkins, Canada: An Ency., vol. 2; Parkin, The Great Dominion; MacBeth, Romance of the Canadian Pacific Railway; Begg, History of the North-West; Fleming, Reports on Canadian Pacific Railway, 1874, 1877, 1878, 1879, 1880; Johnson, First Things in Canada; Parkin, Sir John A. Macdonald; Secretan, Canada’s Great Highway.

Canadian Representatives Abroad. Nova Scotia appointed a representative in London in 1761; New Brunswick in 1786; Upper Canada in 1794; Lower Canada in 1812; British Columbia in 1857. For a short time after 1845 some of the colonies were represented in London by Crown Agents appointed by the Home government and paid by the colonies. In 1879 the Dominion government created the office of Canadian High Commissioner in London. Sir Alexander Galt was the first High Commissioner, 1879-1883; succeeded by Sir Charles Tupper, 1883-1896; Lord Strathcona, 1896-1914; Sir George H. Perley, 1914-1922; and Hon. P. C. Larkin, 1922. In 1882 an Agent or Commissioner for Canada in Paris was appointed, Hector Fabre occupying the office, 1882-1910, and being succeeded by Philippe Roy. Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and British Columbia are still represented in London by Agents-General.

Canadien. A newspaper founded at Quebec in 1806. Became the organ of the French majority in the Assembly. Appealed to race prejudice. Demanded what were considered unconstitutional powers for the Assembly. It was seized and temporarily suppressed by Governor Craig in 1810, but his action was not approved by the Home authorities. See Dionne, Pierre Bédard et Son Temps (R. S. C., 1898). A newspaper with the same name was established in Montreal, to which Papineau, LaFontaine, Doutre, Parent, and other well-known French Canadians contributed.

Canals. The earliest attempt at a canal in Canada, or in North America, was that at Lachine, early in the eighteenth century. (See Catalogue). Between 1779 and 1783, lock canals were built by the Royal Engineers, at the Coteau and the Cascades, on the St. Lawrence. In 1798 a boat canal was built at Sault Ste. Marie by the North West Company. A canal to connect the St. Lawrence and Lake Champlain was advocated as early as 1775, by Silas Deane of Connecticut, but was not actually undertaken until 1831. The Welland Canal was commenced in 1824; and the Rideau Canal two years later. In 1841 the government made provision for the construction and improvement of canals. George Brown was a strong believer in artificial waterways. Papineau opposed them. The extension of the westerly canal system was approved by the Quebec Conference. Enlargement suggested by Hamilton Fish, Secretary of State of the United States, in 1874. These artificial waterways of Canada are controlled by the Department of Railways and Canals of the Dominion government. Altogether about $250,000,000 had been spent on canals, river channels and other improvement to waterways in Canada up to 1925. See also Waterways; and under names of individual canals, Lachine; Rideau; Welland; Cornwall; Soulanges; Sault Ste. Marie; St. Peter’s; Richelieu; Ottawa; Trent; Murray; Williamsburg. Bib.: Keefer, Canals of Canada (R. S. C., 1893); Waterways of Canada (Women’s Can. Hist. Soc. of Ottawa, Trans., vol. 2); Kingsford, Canadian Canals; Report of Royal Commission on Canals, 1871; Annual Reports on Railways and Canals, Ottawa.

Canard River. A small stream in Essex County, Ontario, falling into the Detroit River. The Americans were repulsed here in the War of 1812.

Canniff, William (1830-1910). Educated Victoria College, and studied medicine at Toronto and New York. Admitted a member of the Royal College of Surgeons, 1855. Served in Crimean War. Practised at Belleville. Professor of Surgery, Victoria College. A surgeon in the American Civil War. Devoted many years to a study of the early history of Ontario or Upper Canada. Bib.: A History of the Early Settlement of Upper Canada; The Medical Profession in Upper Canada; Fragments of the War of 1812-1814.

Canso, Gut of. The strait separating Cape Breton from the mainland of Nova Scotia. There have been several suggested derivations of the name, but the proper one would appear to be that of Dr. Rand, from the Indian word Kamsok meaning “opposite the lofty cliffs.” The strait has at different times been known as Passage du Glas and Straits of Fronsac. The town of Canso was at one time known as Wilmot Town, in honour of Montague Wilmot, Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia in 1765. Bib.: Brown, Nova Scotia Place Names.

Canterbury, John Henry Thomas Manners-Sutton, Viscount (1814-1877). Born in England. Entered Parliament, 1841; home secretary from 1841 to 1846 in Peel’s ministry. From 1854 to 1861, lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick; in 1864-1866 governor of Trinidad; and in 1866-1873 governor of Victoria. His term of office in New Brunswick, like that of most of his predecessors, was made up largely of disagreements with the Assembly. The particular bone of contention in his case was a Prohibitory Law passed by the Assembly and which the governor thought so ill-advised that he dissolved the Legislature. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.; Hannay, History of New Brunswick.

Cape Breton. Champlain had named it Isle St. Laurent. An island at the eastern extremity of Nova Scotia, now forming part of that province. Discovered by John Cabot in 1497. First settlement made by the French in 1712. Town of Louisbourg built and strongly fortified. It was captured by Pepperell and Warren in 1745; restored to France by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748; again captured by the British, under Amherst and Boscawen, 1758. Cape Breton was a separate colony of Great Britain, 1784-1820, with Sydney (founded 1785) as its capital. In 1820 it was incorporated with Nova Scotia. See also Louisbourg; Sydney; Nova Scotia. Bib.. Brown, History of Cape Breton; Bourinot, Cape Breton and its Memorials; Grant, Cape Breton, Past and Present.

Capital. See Seat of Government.

Card Money. Circulated in Canada between 1685 and 1717, and again between 1729 and 1759. Jacques de Meulles, the intendant, because of the scarcity of specie, conceived the idea of paying the troops in bills to be redeemed when the ships arrived from France, and, having nothing better adapted to his purpose, took playing cards cut into quarters, stamped them with a crowned fleur de lis, wrote on them their value, and had them signed by the clerk of the treasury and the intendant. Paper money was issued in Acadia in 1708. Scarcity of specie, and particularly of the smaller silver coins, after the conquest, again led to an unusual expedient. Some of the merchants in Canada issued small paper due bills good for future purchases at their stores. They were known as bons from the fact that they were generally in French and read bon pour, etc.; and continued in use for many years, both in Upper and Lower Canada. See also Currency. Bib.: Johnson, First Things in Canada.

Carheil, Etienne de (1633-1726). A Breton, of noble birth. Came to Canada as a Jesuit missionary in 1666. After two years spent at Quebec, left in 1668 for his mission among the Cayugas. Spent a number of years there in a zealous but largely fruitless effort to convert the Indians to Christianity. In 1686 sent to the Hurons at Michilimackinac, and laboured among that tribe for many years. Finally in 1704 returned to Quebec, where he died. Bib.: Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America; Jesuit Relations, ed. by Thwaites.

Cariboo Gold Rush. The finding of gold in the bars of the Fraser river, British Columbia, in 1858, brought a swarm of miners from California. Exhausting the lower bars, they pushed on up-stream. In 1859 rich discoveries were made on the Quesnel, a branch of the Fraser; others followed; the fame of the new gold-fields spread over the world, and in 1860 the Cariboo rush brought adventurers from every quarter, by sea, and by caravan across the plains and through the mountains. Bib.: Coats and Gosnell, Sir James Douglas.

Cariboo Road. A result of the gold rush. As long as the discoveries were confined to the lower Fraser the miners could get in by water, but with the rich strikes higher up-stream the transportation problem became acute. The miners themselves made a road from Harrison Lake to Lillouet in 1858. Between 1862 and 1865 the Royal Engineers built the Cariboo Road from Ashcroft to Barkerville, a practicable road having previously been constructed from Ashcroft down to navigable water on the Fraser. The road was 480 miles in length. The Canadian National Railway follows it rather closely for some distance. Bib.: Laut, The Cariboo Trail; Moberly, History of Cariboo Wagon Road.

Carignan-Salières. The first regiment of regular troops sent to America from France. Raised in Savoy by the Prince of Carignan in 1644; employed for some years in the service of the king of France, and after the peace of the Pyrenees was regularly incorporated in the French army. Fought against the Turks in 1664, and ordered to America the following year. With the original regiment was incorporated the fragment of a regiment of Germans, the whole under the command of Colonel de Salières. The regiment served with distinction in Canada until 1668, when it was ordered home. A large number of officers and men, however, remained in the colony, where they were given generous grants of land. Some of the officers settled along the Richelieu river and became seigneurs. The regiment was reconstructed in France, and under the name of the Regiment of Lorraine existed until 1794. Bib.: Parkman, Old Régime; Susane, Ancienne Infanterie Française, vol. 5; Roy, Le Régiment de Carignan; Sulte, Régiment de Carignan.

Carleton, Sir Guy. See Dorchester.

Carleton, Thomas (1736-1817). A nephew of Lord Dorchester. Served with Wolfe in 1755; quartermaster-general of the army in Canada, 1775; wounded in the naval battle on Lake Champlain, 1776. In 1778, when the United States were planning another invasion of Canada, he was sent to Lake Champlain, made a clean sweep of the settlements on both sides of the lake and destroyed all the provisions, penetrating beyond Ticonderoga. Appointed first lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, 1784. Opposed the Assembly in their efforts to secure political reforms. Granted a charter to Fredericton Academy. Returned to England in 1803. The colony was governed by administrators until 1817, when General Smyth was appointed governor. Bib.. Cyc. Am. Biog.; Bradley, The Making of Canada.

Carling, Sir John (1828-1911). Born near London, Ont. Elected for London to Canadian Assembly, 1857. In 1867 elected both to the Ontario Legislature and the Dominion House of Commons, and sat in both for some time. Receiver-general in Cartier-Macdonald government, 1862. Commissioner of agriculture and public works in the first Ontario administration. Postmaster-general and later minister of agriculture in Dominion government. Was largely responsible for the establishment of the Agricultural College at Guelph, and the Experimental Farms of both the Dominion and Ontario. Called to the Senate, 1891, resigned, 1892, reappointed, 1896. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Dent, Can. Por.

Carlton House. Two forts of this name were founded by the Hudson’s Bay Company. One stood on the banks of the Saskatchewan, above the forks; the other on the upper waters of the Assiniboine. Both were established about the end of the eighteenth century. Alexander Ross describes the former in 1825 as next in extent and importance to Fort Edmonton, but insignificant for defensive purposes.

Carnarvon, Henry Howard Molyneux Herbert, fourth Earl of (1831-1890). Colonial secretary, 1866-1867, and as such presided over the Westminster Conference, and introduced the British North America Act; colonial secretary again, 1874-1878; chairman of Colonial Defence Commission, 1879-1882. Joined Imperial Federation League, 1884. Bib.: Speeches on Canadian Affairs; For biog. see Dict. Nat. Biog.

Caroline. In December, 1837, William Lyon Mackenzie had set up a rebel government on Navy Island in the Niagara river. Most of his adherents were American sympathizers. They used a steamboat, the Caroline, to bring men and supplies from the United States’ side. Captain Drew, R.N., was sent with a party of volunteers to destroy the vessel. He found her at a wharf on the American shore, set fire to her and cut her adrift. In the skirmish, several men were killed. The incident for a time increased the ill-feeling between Americans and Canadians. See also Navy Island; Rebellion of 1837-1838. Bib.: Drew and Wood, The Burning of the Caroline; Dent, Upper Canadian Rebellion; Lindsay, William Lyon Mackenzie.

Caron, Sir Joseph Philippe Réné Adolphe (1843-1908). Son of the following. Born in Quebec. Studied law; entered public life in 1873 as member of Dominion House for Quebec County; elected for Rimouski, 1891. Minister of militia and defence, 1880-1892, which included the period, peculiarly difficult and embarrassing to a French Canadian minister, of the second Riel Rebellion. It is a curious coincidence that French-Canadian ministers were in charge of the militia department through both the Riel Rebellions. See Cartier. Postmaster-general, 1892. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Dent, Can. Por.

Caron, Réné Edouard (1800-1876). Born in the parish of Ste. Anne, Lower Canada. Educated at the Seminary of Quebec and at St. Pierre College; studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1826. Mayor of Quebec, 1833-1837; sat in Assembly, 1834-1836; appointed a member of the Legislative Council of Lower Canada by Lord Gosford, but did not take his seat. Member of the Legislative Council of Canada, 1841; Speaker, 1843-1847 and 1848-1853; member of the La Fontaine-Baldwin government and of the Hincks-Morin government; judge of the Superior Court of Quebec, 1853; afterwards judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench and judge of the Seigniorial Court. He is described as a man of good judgment, and of moderate political views. Bib.: Turcotte, R. E. Caron; Morgan, Cel. Can.; Taylor, Brit. Am.; Dent, Last Forty Years and Can. Por.

Carroll Charles, of Carrollton (1737-1832). Represented Maryland in the Congress at Philadelphia, 1776, and signed the Declaration of Independence. Afterwards elected to the Senate of Maryland, and the federal Senate. With his brother John, afterwards a Roman Catholic archbishop, he accompanied Benjamin Franklin (q.v.) to Canada in 1776, in the unsuccessful effort to convert the Canadians to Republicanism. Bib.: Journal during his visit to Canada in 1776, with Memoirs and Notes by Brantz Mayer; and for biog., Cyc. Am. Biog.

Carter, Sir Frederic Bowker Terrington (1819-1900). Born in St. John’s, Newfoundland. Studied law and called to the bar of Newfoundland, 1842; appointed Q. C., 1859. Member of the Legislative Assembly, 1855-1878; Speaker, 1861-1865; premier, 1865-1870 and 1874-1878; knighted, 1878; chief-justice of Newfoundland, 1880. Represented Newfoundland at the Quebec Conference, 1864. Bib.: Taylor, Brit. Am.; Morgan, Can. Men.

Carter, Sir James (1805-1878). Born in England. Educated at Cambridge; called to the bar, 1832. In 1834 a puisne judge of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick, and in 1851 chief-justice of the province, retiring on a pension in 1865. In 1859 knighted. Spent the latter part of his life in England. Bib.: Hannay, History of New Brunswick.

Cartier, Sir Georges Étienne (1814-1873). Born in St. Antoine, on the Richelieu. Educated at Montreal College. Carried away with the fiery eloquence of Papineau, he fought in the rebel ranks at St. Denis and St. Charles, fled to the American side of the border, and remained in exile at Burlington until the amnesty was proclaimed. Before this warlike episode, Cartier had begun to study law in Montreal. On his return he continued his preparation, called to the bar 1835, and in a few years was well established in a law practice. In 1849 he made his first appearance in public life, being elected to the Assembly for Verchères. In the Legislature he rapidly developed the qualities of leadership, and within four years of entering the Assembly had twice been offered a portfolio. In 1855 he became a member of the cabinet, and, with short intervals of opposition, remained in power for a quarter of a century. If he rose to the top it was not because he was surrounded by mediocrity, for among his contemporaries were such brilliant leaders as Cauchon, Sicotte, Chauveau and Loranger on his own side; Laflamme, Dessaules, Fournier, Doutre and the Dorions among the young Liberals. In 1855 also began that association with John A. Macdonald that was to last to the end of Cartier’s life. They were both members of the MacNab-Morin administration that year. No man in Canadian public life was more bitterly assailed, but like Mazarin and many another statesman, he rode serenely through the storm. He was essentially a constructive leader, and it was largely due to his sound mind and public spirit that many admirable Acts were added to the statute books on such broad questions as education, land tenure and the judiciary. Politically he was an autocrat. “I here confess,” he said on one occasion, “that in all important acts of my life, of my political career, I have not consulted anyone.” Cartier was far-sighted. For years he had seen that improved transportation facilities were the key to Canada’s future, and he missed no opportunity of urging the construction of railways and the deepening of waterways. But his statesmanship never revealed itself more clearly than in his association with the great movement for Confederation. As early as 1858, as leader of the government, he had incorporated in the Speech from the Throne a proposal for a conference of the different colonies to discuss terms of Union, and, with Galt and Rose, had gone to England to obtain the concurrence of the British government. That scheme fell through, but Cartier was again to the fore in the Conferences at Charlottetown and Quebec, and it was undoubtedly due to his immense influence with his fellow-countrymen and their confidence in his judgment and patriotism, that the French Canadians were persuaded to give their support to a plan which on the surface seemed to menace their institutions and their very identity. And on the other hand, it was mainly because, in the interests of French Canada, Cartier stood like a rock for a federal system that those who, like Macdonald, favoured a legislative union, had to give way. Cartier had been premier from 1858 to 1862. In the first Dominion government he took the portfolio of militia and defence, and in a large sense represented the interests of Quebec. In 1869 with William McDougall he negotiated the purchase from the Hudson’s Bay Company of Rupert’s Land. The following year this French-Canadian minister was given the awkward responsibility of suppressing a rebellion led by the French half-breed, Louis Riel. In 1871 he presented the Bill creating the Province of Manitoba, in which he had inserted a clause designed to protect the interests of the Roman Catholic minority. The following year his action in refusing to support disallowance of the New Brunswick school law which did away with separate schools, aroused a storm of protest throughout Quebec. After Confederation, from a variety of causes, Cartier’s influence in the province of Quebec diminished. He was defeated in Montreal, and although again returned to Parliament, never regained the influence he had once wielded over his countrymen. At a time when many in England were frankly recommending independence for Canada and the other great colonies, Cartier staunchly upheld the importance of British connection. Separation he looked upon as an act of suicidal folly. He also did much to bring about a better understanding between English and French-speaking Canadians. As a recognition of his great services in bringing about Confederation, Cartier was made a baronet. In 1872 he made his last appearance in Parliament, taking an important part in the debate on the Canadian Pacific Railway Bill and other matters. He sailed for England in September, and died in London. Bib.: Speeches on the Militia Bill. For biog., see David, Esquisse Biographique; Turcotte, Sir G. É. Cartier; DeCelles, Cartier; Boyd, Sir Georges Étienne-Cartier; Sulte, Sir G. É. Cartier, A Sketch; DeCelles, LaFontaine et Cartier; Lavergne, Georges-Étienne Cartier.

Cartier, Jacques (1491-1557). In 1534, sailing out of St. Malo, made his first voyage to the New World, entering the Gulf of St. Lawrence by way of the Straits of Belle Isle, landing on the Gaspé shore, and coasting around the eastern end of Anticosti, naming many bays, harbours and capes on the mainland and larger islands. Returned to France. The following year again sailed to the gulf, and entered the river St. Lawrence, exploring the coast as he went and adding further names to prominent landmarks. Continuing his voyage, passed the mouth of the Saguenay, and landed on the Island of Orleans, which he named Ile Bacchus. Brought his little ships into the St. Charles River, upon whose banks stood the Indian village of Stadacona. After exploring the St. Lawrence as far as the Indian town of Hochelaga (Montreal), returned to Stadacona, where he wintered. In the spring of 1536 sailed back to France, taking with him the Iroquois chief, Donnacona. In 1541, made a third voyage to Canada, in the course of which he explored the St. Lawrence as far as the second rapid above Hochelaga. Roberval was to have followed with a number of colonists, but did not actually sail until the spring of 1542. When he reached Newfoundland, he met Cartier on his way home. Roberval’s colony proved disastrous, and Cartier, there is reason to believe, undertook a fourth voyage to the New World to rescue the survivors. “Jacques Cartier,” says Professor Leacock, “as much, perhaps, as any man of his time, embodied in himself what was highest in the spirit of his age. He shows us the daring of the adventurer with nothing of the dark cruelty by which such daring was often disfigured. He brought to his task the simple faith of the Christian whose devout fear of God renders him fearless of the perils of sea and storm. The darkest hour of his adversity in that grim winter at Stadacona found him still undismayed. He came to these coasts to find a pathway to the empire of the East. He found, instead, a country vast and beautiful beyond his dreams. The enthusiasm of it entered into his soul. Asia was forgotten before the reality of Canada. Since Cartier’s day four centuries of history have hallowed the soil of Canada with memories and associations never to be forgotten. But patriotism can find no finer example than the instinctive admiration and love called forth in the heart of Jacques Cartier by the majestic beauty of the land of which he was the discoverer.” Bib.: For a complete list of the original editions of Cartier’s voyages, see Harrisse, Notes pour Servir, etc. Tross, Paris, reprinted them as follows: D’Avezac, Bref Récit et Succinte Narration de la Navigation Faite par le Capitaine Jacques Cartier aux Iles de Canada, etc. (1863); Michelant et Ramé, Voyage de Jacques Cartier au Canada en 1534 (1865); Michelant et Ramé, Relation Originale du Voyage de Jacques Cartier au Canada en 1534 (1867). The first English version is that of Florio (1580). In 1600 Hakluyt included a more accurate translation in his Principal Navigations. H. B. Stephen’s essay, Jacques Cartier and his Voyages to Canada, is accompanied by a new translation of the voyages. The Cartier voyages are discussed in the Trans. R. S. C., by W. F. Ganong (1887), (1889); Paul de Cazes (1884), (1890); Abbé Verreau (1890), (1891), (1897); Archbishop Howley (1894); and in the Quebec Lit. and Hist. Soc. Trans., Voyages de Découvertes au Canada (1843); Demazieres, Notes sur Jacques Cartier (1862). See also Pope, Jacques Cartier; Winsor, Cartier to Frontenac; Parkman, Pioneers of France; Des Longrais, Jacques Cartier; Dionne, La Nouvelle France de Cartier à Champlain; Doughty’s “Beginnings of Canada” in Canada and its Provinces; Leacock, Mariner of St. Malo; Biggar, Voyages of Jacques Cartier. An exhaustive bibliography will be found in Baxter, A Memoir of Jacques Cartier.

Cartwright, Richard (1765-1815). Born at Albany, New York. On the outbreak of hostilities with the mother country came with his parents to Upper Canada. For a time served as secretary to Colonel Butler of the Queen’s Rangers, and later engaged in business at Kingston in partnership with Robert Hamilton. Associated with John Strachan at Kingston, and influenced him to join the Church of England. Made judge of the Court of Common Pleas for the district, and on the formation of Upper Canada into a separate province, appointed to the Legislative Council. Simcoe had once branded him as a Republican, but afterwards acknowledged that he was a valuable member of his Council. Urged to accept a seat in the Executive Council, but repeatedly refused. Created lieutenant of the county of Frontenac by Simcoe, and during the War of 1812 served as colonel of the militia. Brock had a high opinion of his ability and character. Occupied a position of prominence in the political and business life of the province. The township of Cartwright, in the county of Durham, Ontario, was named after him in 1816. Bib.: Cartwright, Life and Letters of Hon. Richard Cartwright.

Cartwright, Sir Richard John (1835-1912). Grandson of the preceding. Born at Kingston. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin. Entered public life, 1863, as member for Lennox and Addington, in the Canadian Assembly. Elected for Lennox to the first Dominion House of Commons; for Centre Huron, 1878-1882; for South Huron, 1883-1887; for South Oxford, 1887-1904. Minister of finance in Mackenzie Cabinet, 1873-1878, and the chief spokesman of the Liberal party while in Opposition on all fiscal questions. He was at one time strongly in favour of commercial union with the United States, and introduced the unrestricted reciprocity resolutions of 1888 and 1889. On the return of the Liberals to power, in 1896, became minister of trade and commerce. A delegate to Washington in 1897 to promote better trade relations between Canada and the United States. Represented Canada on the Joint High Commission at Quebec, 1898, and Washington, 1898-1899. Called to the Senate, 1904, and government leader of the Senate, 1909. In appearance and manner he remained the dignified statesman of an earlier generation. Bib.: Works: Remarks on the Militia of Canada; Memories of Confederation; Reminiscences. For biog., see Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years; Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Carvell, Frank Broadstreet (1862-1924). Born Bloomfield, New Brunswick. Educated Boston University. Studied law and called to the bar. K. C., 1907. Represented Carleton county, New Brunswick, in the New Brunswick Legislature, 1899-1900; and the same county in the Dominion House of Commons, 1904-1919. Minister of public works in Union government, 1917-1919. Chairman of the board of railway commissioners, 1919-1924. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Carver, Jonathan (1732-1780). Born at Stillwater, New York. Joined the company of rangers raised by John Burk of Northfield, 1756-1757. After the treaty of Paris, 1763, conceived the idea of exploring the Western territory acquired by England. Between 1766 and 1768, travelled from Michilimackinac to the Mississippi, ascended the Minnesota River, and returned by way of Grand Portage, Lake Superior. Went to England, 1769, to secure government support for his plans of Western exploration, but failed. Died there, January 31st, 1780. Carver’s reliability and the authenticity of his narrative have long been the subject of controversy among historians of western America. Certainly as an original narrative his Travels have only slight value. Bib.: Travels through the Interior Parts of North America, in the Years 1766, 1767, and 1768. The best edition is the third, published at London, 1781. For a bib. of the various editions, and translations, see Lee, Bibliography of Carver’s Travels (Wisconsin State Hist. Soc. Proc., 1909). See also Durrie, Jonathan Carver and “Carver’s Grant” (Wisconsin Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. 6); Gregory, Jonathan Carver: His Travels in the North-West (Parkman Club Pub., No. 5); Bourne, Travels of Jonathan Carver in Amer. Hist. Review, 1906; Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac.

Casgrain, Henri Raymond (1831-1904). After studying medicine, decided to enter the church, and was ordained a priest in 1856. In 1872, owing to an affection of the eyes, he was compelled to abandon the ministry, and thereafter devoted himself entirely to literature. His first work, Légendes Canadiennes, appeared in 1861; and this was followed by many other publications, in history, biography, and belles-lettres. One of the principal contributors to the Soirées Canadiennes, the Foyer Canadien, and other French-Canadian periodicals. A charter member of the Royal Society of Canada; elected president of that body in 1889. Bib.: Among his principal works are: Histoire de la Mère Marie de l’Incarnation; Biographies Canadiennes; Un Pèlerinage au Pays d’Evangéline; Montcalm et Lévis. For bib., see R. S. C., 1894, 21. For biog., see Routhier, Éloge historique de H. R. Casgrain (R. S. C., 1904); Morgan, Can. Men.

Cass, Lewis (1782-1866). Served under General Hull in War of 1812. Drew up Hull’s flamboyant proclamation to the people of Canada. Opposed surrender of Detroit. Afterwards governor of territory of Michigan. Bib.: Contributed to Historical Sketches of Michigan, 1834. For biog., see McLaughlin, Lewis Cass; Cyc. Am. Biog.

Cassels, Sir Walter Gibson Pringle (1845-1923). Born Quebec. Called to the bar 1869. Q. C., 1883. A Bencher of the Law Society. Appointed judge of the Exchequer Court of Canada, 1908.

Castle of St. Louis. See Château St. Louis.

Catalogne, Gédéon de. Employed for some years on military and other engineering works in Canada. In 1701 commenced a canal from Lachine to the Little River, with the object of providing a boat channel around the rapids. The work was abandoned, and resumed in 1717, but was again abandoned, owing to the cost of the rock cutting. Accompanied Denonville on his expedition against the Iroquois, in 1687.

Cataraqui. Name derived from the Iroquois. A fort was built by the engineer Raudin in 1673, under Frontenac’s orders, the site having been selected by La Salle. The fort stood at the mouth of the Cataraqui, on the site of the present city of Kingston. Here Frontenac held a great Council with representatives of the five Iroquois nations, 1673. On Frontenac’s recommendation, Cataraqui was granted to La Salle as a seigniory, upon his repaying the amount the fort had cost the king. Fort Frontenac, as La Salle named it, became the base of his ambitious scheme of western explorations. In 1682 La Barre, who had succeeded Frontenac as governor, and was too small-minded a man to appreciate the importance of La Salle’s discoveries, seized the fort during the latter’s absence and turned it into a trading post for himself and his friends. The following year the king ordered it to be restored, and full reparation given to La Salle. Dongan having demanded the destruction of the fort as the price of peace, Denonville in 1689 ordered the garrison to blow up the walls, destroy the stores and return to Montreal. In 1695 Frontenac, who had returned to Canada, had the fort rebuilt and garrisoned. It remained in commission up to 1758, when it was captured and destroyed by the English. See also Kingston; La Salle. Bib.: Parkman, Frontenac, and La Salle; Machar, Old Kingston; Sulte, Le Fort de Frontenac (R. S. C., 1901); Girouard, L’Expédition du Marquis de Denonville (R. S. C., 1899).

Cathcart, Charles Murray, Earl (1783-1859). Served in Holland, 1799; saw service through Peninsular War; fought at Waterloo; assumed title, 1843; succeeded General Jackson as commander-in-chief of the forces in British North America, 1845; administrator the same year, on the departure of Sir Charles Metcalfe; governor-general, 1846; succeeded by Lord Elgin, 1847. Cathcart was essentially a soldier, with a soldier’s point of view. He had been sent out to Canada because of the threatening position of the Oregon boundary dispute and the possibility of war with the United States, and that was his sole concern. He took no interest whatever in responsible government or any other problems of civil government, and was content to let his ministers run the country their own way. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years; Morgan, Cel. Can.

Cauchon, Joseph Edouard (1816-1885). Educated at the Séminaire de Québec; studied law and called to the bar, but turned immediately to journalism. Edited Le Canadien for a time; and in 1842 established the Journal de Québec. Entered public life, 1844, as member for Montmorency, which county he represented continuously until 1872. Entered MacNab government, 1855, as commissioner of crown lands. Became commissioner of public works in Cartier-Macdonald ministry, 1861-1862. Speaker of the Senate, 1868-1872. Accepted presidency of the Council in Mackenzie administration, 1875-1877; minister of inland revenue, 1877. Resigned the same year to accept the lieutenant-governorship of Manitoba, 1877-1882. Bib.: Works: Remarks on the North-West Territories; Étude sur l’Union Projectée des Provinces Britanniques; L’Union des Provinces de l’Amérique du Nord. For biog., see Revue Canadienne, 1884; Dent, Can. Por.; Taylor, Brit. Am.

Caughnawaga Indians. A community of Iroquois, chiefly drawn from the Oneida and Mohawk, and speaking a modification of the Mohawk tongue. Having been converted by the Jesuit missionaries, they were induced to settle in 1668 at La Prairie, near Montreal. In 1676 they removed to Sault St. Louis, and the majority of their descendants have remained in that vicinity ever since. About 1755 a new settlement was formed at St. Regis, farther up the St. Lawrence. At the period of the Revolutionary War their sympathies were for a time obtained for the cause of the Americans. Many accompanied the fur traders to the west as hunters, and became familiar with the country both east and west of the Rocky Mountains. In the narratives of the fur trade they are referred to as Iroquois. Bib.: Colden, Five Nations; Hodge, Handbook of American Indians.

Cayley, William. Inspector-general, 1845-1848. Metcalfe was bitterly attacked for appointing what was described as “the clerk of a company of blacksmiths in Niagara” to such a responsible position. Again inspector-general, 1854-1858. By the Act of 1859, the office was changed to minister of finance. Cayley favoured the division of the Clergy Reserves among the various denominations. Bib.: Finances and Trade of Canada. For biog., see Dent, Last Forty Years.

Cayugas. One of the tribes of the Iroquois confederacy. Parkman gives four forms of the name: Cayugas, Caiyoquos, Goiogoens, Gweugwehonoh. Their fighting strength is given in the Relation of 1660 as 300. At this time, however, they had been weakened by continual warfare. The Cayuga villages stood on the shore of Cayuga Lake, and their territory extended from that lake to the Owasco, both included. The tribe lay between the Senecas on the west and the Onondagas on the east. By the beginning of the nineteenth century they had been crowded off their ancestral lands, and scattered abroad. Some seven hundred are now on the Six Nation reserve, in the Niagara peninsula. The remainder are for the most part in the western United States. See also Iroquois; Senecas; Onondagas; Mohawks; Tuscaroras. Bib.: Pilling, Iroquoian Languages.

Céleron de Blainville, Jean Baptiste (1664-1735). Born in Paris; came to Canada as a lieutenant in the troops; and died in Montreal. His son Pierre Joseph (1693-1760) led the troops against the Chickasaws in 1739; was commandant at Detroit, 1742-1743, and again, 1750-1754; at Niagara, 1744-1746; and at Crown Point, 1747-1749. Served as major on Montcalm’s staff, 1756-1759. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xvii.

Census. The first census in Canada seems to have been taken in 1640, when the inhabitants numbered 375, distributed as follows: married men, 64; married women (three born in Canada), 64; widower, 1; widows, 4; unmarried men, 35; boys (30 born in Canada), 58; girls (24 born in Canada), 48; nuns, 6; Jesuits, 29; others, 66. Benjamin Sulte found the population in 1650 to have been 705; and in 1663 about 2,500. The census of 1665 gives the total population as 3,251. The first census of the Dominion was taken in 1871, when the population was 3,635,024; the census of 1881 gave a total of 4,324,810; of 1891, 4,833,239; of 1901, 5,371,316; of 1911, 7,206,643; of 1921, 8,788,483. See also Acadians. Bib.: Census of Canada, 1851, 1861, 1871, 1881, 1891, 1901, 1911, 1921. See also Johnson, First Things in Canada; General Index, Trans. R. S. C., under Census; and Canada Year Book.

Chabanel, Noél. Jesuit missionary in the Huron country, 1643. Had been a professor of rhetoric in France, before coming to Canada. When the Hurons were driven from their country by the Iroquois, in 1649, he was sent to help Garnier among the Petuns. Having been called to St. Joseph Island, in Matchadash Bay, to which the demoralized flock of the Jesuits had been removed, Chabanel reached the mission of St. Mathias, and continuing his journey was lost in the woods, where he fell a victim to one of his own Hurons, who afterwards confessed that he had murdered the missionary. Bib.: Parkman, Jesuits in North America; Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America.

Chabot, J. (1807-1860). Born at St. Charles, Bellechasse, Lower Canada. Studied law and practised in Quebec. Sat in the Assembly for Quebec, 1843-1850; for Bellechasse, 1851-1854; and for Quebec, 1854-1856. Became chief commissioner of public works, 1849, and again in 1852; government director of the Grand Trunk, 1854, and Seigniorial Tenure commissioner the same year. Voted against secularization of the Clergy Reserves. Appointed judge of the Superior Court of Lower Canada, 1856. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Dent, Last Forty Years.

Chambly. Fort, otherwise known as St. Louis, on the Richelieu. Built of palisades in 1665. Burnt by the Iroquois in 1702. Rebuilt of stone, 1709-1711; taken by the Americans under Montgomery in 1775. The interior buildings burnt in 1776. Restored the following year. Abandoned in 1850. Preserved now by the National Sites and Monuments Board as an historic memorial.

Chambly, Jacques de. An officer of the Carignan Regiment; built Fort St. Louis 1665, and given its command. In 1672 the seigniory of Chambly granted to him. Succeeded De Grandfontaine as governor of Acadia. Made his headquarters at Pentagouet, a fortified post at the mouth of the Penobscot. In 1674 his fort was captured and he himself carried prisoner to Boston. Set at liberty and returned to France. In 1676 sent out again to Acadia, and remained at Port Royal until 1680, when he was transferred to Grenada in the West Indies, and later to Martinique, where he died. Bib.: Sulte, Régiment de Carignan (R. S. C., 1902).

Champlain, Samuel (1567?-1635). Born at Brouage. From his father who was a mariner he early learned to love the sea, and after a period of service in the army under Marshal d’Aumont he made a voyage to Spain in 1598, and from there with the Spanish fleet to the West Indies as captain of the Saint Julien. He saw service at Porto Rico and in Mexico the following year. Visited Cuba, and on his voyage back to Spain captured two English vessels. On his return to France in 1601 he was appointed geographer to the king. Two years later he sailed for Canada with Pont-Gravé, on behalf of the colonizing company of Aymar de Chastes. Arrived at Tadoussac toward the end of May, explored the Saguenay for some distance in the hope that it might prove to be the long-sought passage to Cathay, ascended the St. Lawrence to Sault St. Louis, returned and sailed around the coast of Gaspé, and was back in France in September. De Chastes had died during his absence, but Champlain was determined to carry on his plans for colonization and succeeded in interesting Henry IV. In 1604 he again sailed to the west, as geographer and historian of the expedition to Acadia commanded by de Monts. With them went Poutrincourt and Biencourt. Pont-Gravé sailed in another vessel. They sailed along the coast and into the Bay of Fundy, to Port Royal and up to Chignecto. On their way down the other side of the Bay they visited and named the St. John river, and wintered on St. Croix Island at the mouth of the river of the same name. Champlain continued down the coast, naming Mount Desert. The following June with de Monts he again explored the coast as far as Cape Cod. St. Croix having proved undesirable, the settlement was moved to Port Royal. In 1606 Champlain continued his explorations, and in 1607 returned to France. The next year he sailed for the St. Lawrence in the Don de Dieu, and laid the foundations of the city of Quebec, where he spent the winter. He had some trouble with the Indians and also was compelled to put down a mutiny among his own men. Scurvy proved an even more dangerous enemy. Sailed for France in 1609, having previously made an expedition up the St. Lawrence and the Richelieu to Lake Champlain, where he defeated a war party of Iroquois. In 1610 Champlain again sailed to Quebec with a number of artisans. In June he once more attacked and defeated the Iroquois on the Richelieu, and was back in France in September. Sailed for Canada in 1611, and ascended the St. Lawrence to and built a fort on the island of Ste. Hélène, in what is to-day the harbour of Montreal. Here he had information from the Indians as to the country beyond, which was to incite him to further explorations. On his return to France, he found that de Monts, who had sunk a great deal of money in the attempt to colonize Canada, had determined to abandon the enterprise. Champlain appealed to Louis XIII, who made the Prince de Condé viceroy of New France, and the explorer sailed again in 1613 as his lieutenant. In France Champlain had met a young man named Nicolas du Vignau who said that he had ascended the Ottawa to the Northern Sea. With him he set out in May and ascended the Ottawa to Allumette Island. From the Algonquin chief who lived there, Tessouat, he learned that Vignau was a liar and had never been beyond this spot. On this journey he lost his astrolabe, which was dug up by a farmer two hundred and fifty-six years afterward. Having returned to France, he again sailed to Canada in April, 1615, bringing with him several Récollet missionaries. In July, with Étienne Brûlé and a party of Indians, he ascended the Ottawa, crossed through Lake Nipissing, and descended French River to Georgian Bay, where he visited villages of the Huron Indians, where one of the Récollet, Father Le Caron, was already established. In August he set out with a war party of Hurons to attack the Iroquois. Their route was by way of Lake Simcoe and the Trent to the Bay of Quinte. Crossing the foot of Lake Ontario, they entered the Iroquois country. The expedition proved a failure, Champlain was wounded, and suffered severely on the retreat to the Huron villages. On his return to Quebec Champlain called a meeting of his Council to consider plans for the development of the colony. As a result of their deliberations he took Le Caron with him to France in an effort to secure funds for the Huron Mission. Nothing much came of that, but Champlain brought out with him to Quebec in 1617 one Louis Hébert, who materially helped him in building up the little settlement. Returning to France the following year, he again sailed in 1620. He had suffered many disappointments, but remained undismayed and more determined than ever to make New France worthy of its name. Not the least of his difficulties was to keep the peace between the rival fur trading companies of Rouen and De Caën, both too selfish to consider the best interests of the colony. This year he began the construction of the Château St. Louis at Quebec. In 1627 he became one of Richelieu’s Company of New France, or the Hundred Associates. The following year he had the mortification of learning that Kirke had captured the fleet on its way up the river with settlers and supplies, and in 1629 the greater humiliation of surrendering Quebec to the English captain. After its restoration he returned, and devoted the remaining years of his life to the welfare of the little town whose growth he had watched and fostered for more than a quarter of a century. See also Quebec; Port Royal; de Monts; Pont-Gravé; Brûlé; Du Vignau. Bib.: Works: Œuvres de Champlain (Laverdière), 1870; Voyages (Laverdière), 1870; Voyages (trans. by Otis, with memoir by Slafter), 1878-1882; Grant, Voyages of Samuel de Champlain; Bourne, Champlain’s Voyages; Biggar, Works of Samuel de Champlain; (Champlain Society, in course of pub.). For bib. of the original editions, see Harrisse, Notes pour servir, etc. For biog., see Gravier, Vie de Samuel Champlain; Sedgwick, Samuel de Champlain; Dix, Champlain: the Founder of New France; Verreau, Samuel de Champlain (R. S. C., 1899); Dionne, Champlain; Parkman, Pioneers of France; Colby, Founder of New France; Henley, Samuel de Champlain.

Champlain Lake. Discovered by Samuel Champlain, July, 1609. Here took place the first hostile encounter between the French and the Iroquois. The French were the aggressors, and had bitter enough cause to remember the fact throughout the century. In 1666 the Sieur de la Motte built a fort on Ile La Motte, which was afterwards abandoned. Fort St. Frédéric was built at Crown Point, 1731. It was enlarged and strengthened in 1734, and again in 1742. Lake Champlain became the war thoroughfare, not merely between the Iroquois and French, but between New France and New England. Fort Carillon, also known as Ticonderoga, was built, 1755-1756. See also Ticonderoga; Crown Point; Lake George; Dieskau; Sir William Johnson; Montcalm; Abercromby; Bourlamaque; Amherst; Ethan Allen; Carleton; Montgomery; Burgoyne. Bib.: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe; Crockett, History of Lake Champlain; Smith, Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony; Reid, Lake George and Lake Champlain; Palmer, History of Lake Champlain. See bib. note in Crockett.

Chandler, Edward Barron (1800-1880). Elected to New Brunswick Assembly, 1827, for Westmoreland, which he represented until 1836, when called to Legislative Council. Sent to London in 1833 by the Assembly to lay its grievances before the colonial secretary. Their principal contention was that the revenue derived from the public domain should be controlled by the Legislature. Became executive councillor, 1844. Engaged in negotiations for Intercolonial Railway, 1850-1852; reciprocity, 1854; and Confederation, 1865. Favoured a federal rather than a legislative union. Succeeded Tilley as lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, 1878. Bib.: Hannay, History of New Brunswick; Dent, Can. Por.

Chansons of French Canada. Most of the inimitable folk-songs of Quebec came in their original form from France, and have undergone more or less of a transformation in their new environment. A few originated in French Canada. They are part of the history of French Canada, and are peculiarly associated with the life of the voyageur and the fur trader. Various attempts have been made to translate them into English, by G. T. Lanigan, William McLennan, Edward Sapir, E. W. Thomson, and others, with but indifferent success. Many of them are practically untranslatable. Bib.: Gagnon, Chansons populaire; Lanigan, National Ballads of Canada; McLennan, Songs of Old Canada; Burpee, Songs of French Canada; Wood, Footnotes to Canadian Folk-Songs (R. S. C., 1896); Bourinot, Songs of Forest and River in Rose-Belford Monthly, 1877; French Songs of Old Canada, pictured by W. Graham Robertson; Tiersot, French Folk-Songs; Barbeau and Sapir, Folk Songs of French Canada; Larue, Chants populaires du Canada.

Chapais, Jean Charles (1812-1885). Born in Rivière Ouelle, Quebec. Member of the Executive Council and commissioner of public works, 1864-1867. Delegate to the Quebec Conference. In 1867 privy councillor and minister of agriculture; and in 1869-1873 receiver-general. In 1868 called to the Senate. Bib.: Dent, Last Forty Years.

Chapais, Joseph Amable Thomas (1858-). Son of preceding. Educated at Laval University. Called to the bar, 1879. Edited Le Courrier du Canada for some years after 1884. Appointed member of Legislative Council of Quebec, 1892, and elected Speaker, 1895; president of the Executive Council, 1896; and minister of colonization and mines, 1897. Appointed to the Senate of Canada, 1919. Professor of history at Laval University. President of the Royal Society of Canada, 1923-1924. Bib.: Works: Jean Talon, Intendant de la Nouvelle France; Discours et Conférences; The Great Intendant; le Marquis de Montcalm; Cours d’histoire du Canada. For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Chapleau, Sir Joseph Adolphe (1840-1898). Studied law and called to the bar, 1861. Elected to Quebec Legislature, 1867, and successively solicitor-general and provincial secretary of the province. Premier of Quebec, 1879. Entered Dominion Cabinet, 1882, as secretary of state. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Quebec, 1892; knighted, 1896. Bib.: Works: Léon XIII, Homme d’État; Question des Chemins de Fer. For biog., see J. A. Chapleau: Sa Biographie et Ses Discours; Morgan, Can. Men; Dent, Can. Por.

Chapman, Henry Samuel (1803-1881). Born in England. Came to Canada, 1823, and established at Montreal the Daily Advertiser, the first daily newspaper published in British America, 1833. Connected with several other newspapers. A strong supporter of the Reform party. Attempted to secure the support of Joseph Howe for the agitation in Lower Canada. Removed to England and called to the bar, 1840. Went to New Zealand, where he became a judge. Died in Dunedin, New Zealand.

Charbonnel, Armand François Marie de (1802-1860). Born in France. Came to Canada in 1839. Roman Catholic bishop of Toronto, 1850-1860. Carried on a controversy with Ryerson over the public school question. Drafted a Separate School bill. Died at Lyons, France.

Charlevoix, Pierre-François-Xavier de (1682-1761). First came to Canada in 1705, as an instructor in the Jesuits’ College at Quebec. Returned to France in 1709. It was at this time that he gathered the material for his Histoire et Description Générale de la Nouvelle France. Again visited Canada in 1720 by order of the French government to report as to the best route for an overland expedition in search of the Western Sea. In the course of this journey visited the missions and posts of what was then the extreme western frontier of New France, returning to France in 1723 by way of Mobile. His account of the history of New France and the character of the population in his day is of interest, as are his comments on the life and character of Champlain, Frontenac, Lescarbot and other Canadian statesmen and explorers. Bib.: Besides his Histoire du Paraguay and Histoire de l’Isle Espagnole ou de S. Dominique, Charlevoix was the author of La Vie de la Mère de l’Incarnation and of the first general history of Canada, Histoire et Description Générale de la Nouvelle France. His Voyage dans l’Amerique Septentrionale was translated into English in 1756. Dr. J. G. Shea’s translation of the History was published at New York in 6 vols., 1866-1872; and reprinted by F. P. Harper, New York, in 6 vols. An abridged translation of Charlevoix’s Journal is found in vol. 3 of French, Hist. Coll. of Louisiana. For biog., see J. E. Roy, Essai sur Charlevoix (R. S. C., 1907).

Charlottetown. Capital of Prince Edward Island. Originally founded by the French, about 1750, and then known as Port la Joie. In 1713 it was a fortified post, with a garrison of sixty soldiers. The population numbered 1,354 in 1752; and in 1758 it had been increased to over 4,000 by the arrival of a large number of Acadians from the mainland. It came under British rule in 1763, and received its present name about 1768. Incorporated as a town, 1855. Bib.: Campbell, History of Prince Edward Island.

Charlottetown Conference, 1864. Suggested by Tupper. The original idea was to bring about a union of the Maritime provinces, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island, and delegates were sent to Charlottetown from the Legislatures of the three provinces. During the meeting representatives arrived from the Legislature of Canada, with proposals for a wider federation. These proposals were discussed, and felt to be so important that it was finally decided to call a larger Conference at Quebec for fuller consideration. Delegates at Charlottetown: Nova Scotia—Charles Tupper, W. A. Henry, R. B. Dickey, A. G. Archibald, Jonathan McCully; New Brunswick—S. L. Tilley, W. H. Steeves, J. M. Johnson, E. B. Chandler, J. H. Gray; Prince Edward Island—E. Palmer, W. H. Pope, J. H. Gray, A. Coles, T. H. Haviland, E. Whalen, A. A. McDonald; Canada—John A. Macdonald, George Brown, G. E. Cartier, A. T. Galt, T. D. McGee, H. L. Langevin, Wm. McDougall, Alexander Campbell. See Quebec Conference; Macdonald; Tupper. Bib.: Whelan, Union of the British Provinces; Saunders, Three Premiers of Nova Scotia.

Charlton, John (1829-1910). Born near Caledonia, New York, he studied law and engaged in newspaper work; came to Canada, 1849, farmed for a time and then went into the lumber business. Represented North Norfolk in the House of Commons for twenty-four years. Although a staunch Liberal, he voted with the Macdonald government on the Riel question; opposed the Jesuit Estates bill; and was responsible for the so-called Charlton Act and other social reform legislation. One of the founders of the Dominion Lord’s Day Alliance. Chairman of Ontario Royal Mining Commission, 1888. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Charny-Lauzon. See Lauzon-Charny.

Chartier de Lotbinière, Eustache Gaspard Michel. Consulted in connection with the drafting and consideration of the Quebec Act. See Con. Doc. 1759-91. Elected Speaker of the Assembly, 1793.

Chartier de Lotbinière, René Louis. A member of the Sovereign Council, 1677. Appointed by the king. The Sovereign Council was a species of superior court for the trial of both civil and criminal cases in New France. Also director of Company of the Colony.

Chastes, Aymar de. Governor of Dieppe. Granted a charter for the colonization of Canada. He was closely associated with Champlain, and the famous Champlain manuscript found at Dieppe and printed first by the Hakluyt Society in English and afterwards by Abbé Laverdière of Quebec in French, was preserved in his family. Sent Pont-Gravé and Champlain to Canada in 1603. Died the same year.

Château de Ramezay. On Notre Dame Street, Montreal. Originally built in 1705 by Claude de Ramezay, then governor of Montreal, as his residence. Here he held his little colonial court up to 1724. The château was sold to the Company of the Indies, 1745. The latter held it until 1763, when it was purchased by William Grant, who in turn sold it to the British government for two thousand guineas. It became the official residence of the governors under the British régime until 1849. At the time of the American invasion in 1775, the château was the headquarters of Montgomery, and the following year it was occupied by Benedict Arnold and Benjamin Franklin. Lord Metcalfe was the last resident governor. After 1849 the château was used for a time as government offices, and when the government was removed from Montreal, courts were held in it and it was also used for school purposes. In 1894 the city bought it from the Provincial government for the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society, and the following year the Society established there its historical portrait gallery and museum.

Château Haldimand. At Quebec. Consisted of an addition to the Château St. Louis, the foundation stone of which was laid on May 5th, 1784, by Haldimand. Named in Haldimand’s honour. Consisted principally of a large assembly room for use on state occasions. Afterwards used as a normal school in connection with Laval University, until 1892, when it was pulled down. The south-west wing of the Château Frontenac covers its site.

Château St. Louis. At Quebec. Commenced by Governor de Montmagny, 1647, and completed by his successor, D’Ailleboust. Demolished, 1694, and rebuilt with new wing. Enlarged, 1723; and in 1808 renovated and again enlarged, by government of Lower Canada. Up to the close of French régime, it was the official residence of the governors of Canada; and after the cession, their British successors continued to occupy the building. It was destroyed by fire, 1834. The Château Frontenac hotel now stands immediately back of the site of the Château St. Louis, which occupied part of what is now Dufferin Terrace. See Habitation de Québec. Bib.: Gagnon, Le Fort et la Château St. Louis; Doughty, Fortress of Quebec; Douglas, Old France in the New World.

Châteaufort, Marc Antoine Bras-de-fer de. Acted as governor, 1635-1636, after the death of Champlain and until the arrival of De Montmagny. His instructions brought by Father le Jeune.

Châteauguay. Battle in War of 1812-14, October 26th, 1813. The stream from which the battle took its name, rises in Franklin County, New York, and falls into the St. Lawrence a few miles above Caughnawaga. The scene of the battle was about six miles above the confluence of the English with Châteauguay River. Hampton was in command of the Americans and De Salaberry commanded the Canadian troops, with Colonel Macdonell in charge of the reserves. Although the former had an overwhelmingly superior force, the result of the battle was in favour of the Canadians; and the contemplated attack on Montreal was abandoned. The battle was won mainly by French-Canadian militia under a French-Canadian commander. See also War of 1812; Salaberry. Bib.: Lucas, Canadian War of 1812; Lighthall, An Account of the Battle of Châteauguay; Macdonell, The Early Settlement and History of Glengarry in Canada; Kingsford, History of Canada.

Chatham. City of Kent county, Ontario. Site reserved for a town-plot by Governor Simcoe in 1795. Actual settlement dates from about 1834. Named after Chatham, England. Incorporated as a town in 1855, and as a city in 1895. Bib.: Douglas, Canadian City Names.

Chatham, William Pitt, first Earl of (1708-1778). The “Great Commoner,” who brought England “to a height of prosperity and glory unknown to any former age.” He opposed with all his strength the vicious policy of colonial taxation. Was largely instrumental in the repeal of the Stamp Act. In May, 1774, he told the House of Commons that it was his determination “to stand for England and America.” He urged continually a conciliatory policy towards America, until it became apparent that the colonists would be satisfied with nothing less than independence. His broad outlook and unerring instinct in the choice of men were chiefly responsible for the triumphs of British policy at home and abroad. Sent Boscawen and Amherst to the capture of Louisbourg, and Wolfe and Saunders to victory at Quebec. Bib.: Almon, Anecdotes and Speeches of Chatham; Rosebery, William Pitt; Thackeray, History of William Pitt; Green, William Pitt, Earl of Chatham; Correspondence of William Pitt with Colonial Governors, ed. by Kimball. See his letters and instructions to Wolfe, Saunders, and Amherst, in Doughty, Siege of Quebec, and Wood, Logs of Conquest of Canada. See also Grant, Colonial Policy of Chatham.

Chaumonot, Joseph (1611-1693). Born near Chatillon-sur-Seine. Came to Canada, 1639, with Madame de la Peltrie, Marie de l’Incarnation, and Fathers Vimont and Poncet. Accompanied Brébeuf as missionary to the Neutral Nation, whose country was along the north shore of Lake Erie, 1640. Found his task rather discouraging at first. “Never could I imagine,” he writes, “such hard-heartedness as there is in a savage. You cannot convert him unless you pay him for it.” He developed an unusual facility in picking up Indian languages, which was of immense assistance to him in his work. Sent to the Onondagas, 1655. Missionary in charge of the Hurons at Old Lorette, where, in 1674, he built the chapel in honour of Our Lady of Loretto. Bib.: Shea, Vie de Chaumonot; Parkman, Jesuits in North America; Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America. Chaumonot’s Huron Grammar was translated into English and published in the Quebec Lit. and Hist. Soc. Trans., 1831.

Chaussegros de Léry, Gaspard (1682-1756). Sent to Canada in 1716 to superintend the fortifications of Quebec, Montreal, and other places in the colony. Prepared a plan of the cathedral at Quebec in 1725; and of the fortifications at Quebec in 1730. Mentioned as having been at Fort St. Frédéric in 1742; made a plan of Detroit in 1750. Bib.: Traité de Fortification.

Chaussegros de Léry, Gaspard-Joseph. Son of preceding. Also an engineer. Made a legislative councillor in 1774.

Chauveau, Pierre Joseph Olivier (1820-1890). Born at Quebec. Educated at Quebec; studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada. First entered public life, 1844, defeating John Neilson in Quebec County. Represented the same constituency in the Assembly until 1855. He was one of the leaders of the Opposition in 1847. Solicitor-general, in Hincks-Morin ministry, 1851; and provincial secretary, 1853. Voted against the secularization of the Clergy Reserves. In 1855 succeeded Dr. Meilleur as chief superintendent of education in Lower Canada. In 1867 elected to the Dominion Parliament, as well as to the Quebec House, and the same year formed a provincial ministry. DeCelles describes him as a man of “sterling honour and of very moderate views in politics.” Resigned, 1873, and the same year became Speaker of the Senate, retiring in 1874. Three years later sheriff of Montreal. Bib.: Works: Charles Guérin, Roman de Mœurs Canadiennes; François-Xavier Garneau, Sa Vie et Ses Œuvres; L’Instruction Publique au Canada; Souvenirs et Légendes. For biog., see Dent, Can. Por.; Taylor, Brit. Am.; Morgan, Cel. Can.

Chauvin, Pierre de, Sieur de Tonnetuit. A Huguenot. Appointed captain of the garrison at Honfleur, 1589. Obtained trading monopoly for ten years in Canada. Made a trading voyage to Canada, 1600, bringing out a few colonists, whom he landed at Tadoussac. Sailed again the following year, with a larger fleet, but no colonists; and again in 1602. Died, 1603. Another Pierre de Chauvin, Sieur de la Pierre, born at Dieppe, was left by Champlain in command of Quebec in 1609, while he and Pont-Gravé were in France. Bib.: Biggar, Early Trading Companies of New France.

Chedabucto. Near the Straits of Canso. Now known as Guysborough, Nova Scotia. In 1682 a company was formed in France for the establishment of an inshore fishery on the coasts of Acadia. They built a fort and fishing establishment at the head of Chedabucto Bay. Frontenac was there in 1689. In 1690 Phipps sent Captain Alden to capture Chedabucto. Montorgueil, who was in command, had a garrison of only fourteen men, and was compelled to surrender.

Chequamegon. Bay on south side of Lake Superior. Radisson built a small post there in 1658. Jesuit mission established in the following decade. Du Lhut passed the bay on his way to the Sioux country in 1679. Le Sueur built a trading post on the bay in 1693. It stood on Madeline Island, and the site was marked by a tablet in 1925. It was abandoned in 1698, and in 1718 LeGardeur de Saint Pierre built a military post known as Fort La Pointe. A small French village grew up about it, and survived up to the cession of Canada. French fur traders were succeeded there by British traders, and these later by Americans. Bib.: Thwaites “Story of Chequamegon” in Wis. Hist. Colls., xiii.

Chesterfield Inlet. On the north-west coast of Hudson Bay. Named about 1749 after the fifth Earl of Chesterfield (1694-1773), who had been secretary of state from 1746 to 1748, and author of the famous Letters. Explored by Tyrrell in 1893. Bib.: White, Place Names in Northern Canada.

Chief Justices of Alberta. Arthur Lewis Sifton, 1905-1910; Horace Harvey, 1910-1924; Horace Harvey (Appeal), 1924; W. C. Simmons (Trial), 1924.

Chief Justices of British Columbia. Matthew Baillie Begbie, 1859-1894; Theodore Davis, 1895-1898; Angus John McColl, 1898-1905; Gordon Hunter (Supreme), 1905; James Alexander Macdonald (Appeal), 1909.

Chief Justices, Chancery Court, Ontario. William Hume Blake, 1849-1862; Philip Michael Matthew Scott Vankoughnet, 1862-1869; John Godfrey Spragge, 1869-1881; Sir John Alexander Boyd, 1881.

Chief Justices, Common Pleas, Upper Canada and Ontario. James Buchanan Macaulay, 1849-1856; William Henry Draper, 1856-1863; William Buell Richards, 1863-1868; John Hawkins Hagarty, 1868-1878; Adam Wilson, 1878-1884; Matthew Crooks Cameron, 1884-1887; Thomas Galt, 1887-1894; William Ralph Meredith, 1894-1912; Richard Martin Meredith, 1912-1925. All the Ontario Courts have now been abolished, and, under the Ontario Judicature Act, 1925, three new Courts are created—Appellate Division, Court No. 1; Appellate Division, Court No. 2; High Court Division; the three constituting the Supreme Court of Ontario. Of the first, Sir William Mulock is chief justice; of the second, F. R. Latchford; and of the third, R. M. Meredith.

Chief Justices, Court of Appeal, Ontario. William Henry Draper, 1868-1877; Thomas Moss, 1877-1881; John Godfrey Spragge, 1881-1884; John Hawkins Hagarty, 1884-1897; George William Burton, 1897-1900; John Douglas Armour, 1900-1902; Charles Moss, 1902-1912; Sir William Ralph Meredith, 1912-1923; Sir William Mulock, 1923-1925.

Chief Justices, King’s Bench, Lower Canada. Sir James Stuart, 1841-1849; Joseph Rémi Vallières de St-Réal, 1842-1847; Jean Roch Rolland, 1847-1849.

Chief Justices, King’s Bench, Montreal. James Monk, 1794-1825; James Reid, 1825-1838; Michael O’Sullivan, 1838-1841.

Chief Justices, King’s Bench, Quebec. William Osgoode, 1794-1802; John Elmsley, 1802-1805; Henry Alcock, 1805-1808; Jonathan Sewell, 1808-1838; James Stuart, 1838-1841.

Chief Justices, King’s Bench, Upper Canada and Ontario. William Osgoode, 1791-1796; John Elmsley, 1796-1802; Henry Alcock, 1802-1806; Thomas Scott, 1806-1816; William Dummer Powell, 1816-1825; William Campbell, 1825-1829; John Beverley Robinson, 1829-1862; Archibald McLean, 1862-1863; William Henry Draper, 1863-1868; William Buell Richards, 1868-1875; Robert Alexander Harrison, 1875-1878; John Hawkins Hagarty, 1878-1884; Adam Wilson, 1884-1887; John Douglas Armour, 1887-1900; Sir William Glenholme Falconbridge, 1900-1920.

Chief Justices of Lower Canada. William Osgoode, 1794-1824; James Reid, 1825-1830; Jonathan Sewell, 1830-1838.

Chief Justices of Manitoba. Alexander Morris, 1872-1874; Edmund Burke Wood, 1874-1882; Lewis Wallbridge, 1882-1887; Thomas Wardlaw Taylor, 1887-1899; Albert Clements Killam, 1899-1903; Joseph Dubuc, 1903-1910; Hector Mansfield Howell, 1906-1910, (Appeal) 1910-1918; W. E. Perdue, 1918; Thomas Graham Mathers (King’s Bench), 1910.

Chief Justices of New Brunswick. George Duncan Ludlow, 1784-1809; Jonathan Bliss, 1809-1822; John Saunders, 1822-1834; Ward Chipman, 1834-1850; James Carter, 1851-1865; Robert Parker, 1865; William Johnston Ritchie, 1865-1875; John Campbell Allen, 1875-1896; William Henry Tuck, 1896-1908; Frederick Eustache Parker, 1908-1914; Ezekiel McLeod (Appeal), 1914-1917; Sir J. D. Hazen, 1917; Pierre Armand Landry (King’s Bench), 1914-1924; J. H. Barry, 1924.

Chief Justices of the North-West Territories. Thomas Horace McGuire, 1902-1903; Arthur Lewis Sifton, 1903-1905.

Chief Justices of Nova Scotia. Jonathan Belcher, 1754-1776; Charles Morris, 1776-1778; Bryan Finucane, 1778-1885; Isaac Deschamps, 1785-1788; Jeremiah Pemberton, 1788-1791; Thomas Andrew Strange, 1791-1797; Sampson Salter Blowers, 1797-1833; Brenton Halliburton, 1833-1860; William Young, 1860-1881; James McDonald, 1881-1904; Sir Robert Linton Weatherbe, 1905-1907; Charles James Townsend, 1907-1918; R. E. Harris, 1918.

Chief Justices of Prince Edward Island. John Duport, 1770-1776; Peter Stewart, 1776-1801; Thomas Cochrane, 1801-1802; Robert Thorpe, 1802-1807; Cesar Colclough, 1807-1813; Thomas Tremlett, 1813-1824; S. G. W. Archibald, 1824-1828; E. J. Jarvis, 1828-1852; Sir Robert Hodgson, 1853-1874; Edward Palmer, 1874-1889; Sir William Wilfred Sullivan, 1889-1917; J. A. Mathieson, 1917.

Chief Justices of Quebec. William Gregory, 1764-1766; William Hey, 1766-1777; Peter Livius, 1777-1786; William Smith, 1786-1793. From 1778 to 1786 the functions of the office of chief justice were actually performed by a commission of three judges, Mabane, Dunn and Williams.

Chief Justices, Queen’s Bench, Lower Canada and Quebec. Sir James Stuart, 1849-1853; Sir Louis Hypolite LaFontaine, 1853-1864; Jean François Joseph Duval, 1864-1874; Antoine Aimé Dorion, 1874-1891; Alexandre Lacoste, 1891-1907; Henri T. Taschereau, 1907-1909; Sir Louis Amable Jetté, 1909-1922; P. E. Lafontaine, 1922.

Chief Justices of Saskatchewan. Edward Ludlow Wetmore, 1907-1912; Frederick William Gordon Haultain, 1912-1918; Sir F. W. G. Haultain (Appeal), 1918; J. T. Brown (King’s Bench), 1918.

Chief Justices, Superior Court, Quebec. Edward Bowen, 1849-1866; William Collis Meredith, 1866-1884; Andrew Stuart, 1885-1889; Sir Francis Godschall Johnson, 1889-1894; Sir Louis Edelmar Napoléon Casault, 1894-1904; Adolphe Basile Routhier, 1904-1906; Sir Melbourne McTaggart Tait, 1906-1912; Charles Peers Davidson, 1912-1915; Sir F. X. Lemieux, 1915.

Chief Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada. Sir William Buell Richards, 1875-1879; Sir William Johnston Ritchie, 1879-1891; Sir Samuel Henry Strong, 1892-1902; Sir Henri Elzéar Taschereau, 1902-1906; Sir Charles Fitzpatrick, 1906-1918; Sir Louis Henry Davies, 1918-1924; Francis Alexander Anglin, 1924.

Chief Justices of Vancouver Island. David Cameron, 1853-1858; Joseph Needham, 1858-1859.

Chignecto Basin. At the head of the Bay of Fundy. From a Micmac Indian word Signiukt meaning “a foot of cloth.” The French called the bay Beaubassin and also Bay de Gennes. In 1755 the English named it Cumberland. Later changed to present name. Fort Beausejour, or Fort Cumberland as it was renamed in 1755, and Fort Lawrence, as well as the old Acadian settlement of Beaubassin, stood near its shores. Bib.: Brown, Nova Scotia Place Names.

Childers, Hugh Culling Eardley (1827-1896). Entered the House of Commons, 1860; financial secretary, 1865-1866; first lord of the Admiralty and privy councillor, 1868. In 1875 came to Canada on Lord Dufferin’s invitation as a commissioner under the Prince Edward Island Land Purchase Act. Secretary of state for war, 1880-1882; chancellor of the exchequer, 1882-1885; and home secretary, 1886. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.

Chinook Indians. A tribe inhabiting the country about the mouth of the Columbia in the days of the fur trade. Accounts of them are found in the narratives of Alexander Henry, Ross Cox, Alexander Ross, Franchère, and other writers of the period. They gave their name to the Chinook Jargon, an Indian trade language of the Pacific coast in which English, French and possibly Russian words were afterwards incorporated; and also to the warm winds that blow from the Pacific over the Rocky Mountains. Bib.: Hodge, Handbook of American Indians.

Chipewyan Indians. A group of Indian tribes in northern Canada, including the Desnedekenade, Athabaska, Thilanottine, Etheneldeli and Tatsanottine or Yellow-knives. Name is derived from a Cree name for the parkas or shirts of the northern Indians which were pointed and ornamented with tails before and behind. They were first visited by Samuel Hearne, and later by Alexander Mackenzie, Franklin and many other later Arctic explorers. Bib.: Hodge, Handbook of American Indians.

Chipman, Ward (1754-1824). Graduated at Harvard, 1770. A United Empire Loyalist, he emigrated to Halifax, 1776, and thence to England. Returned to America and in 1782 was deputy muster-master-general of the army. In 1783 went to St. John, and became a member of the Assembly, advocate-general, solicitor-general, judge of the Supreme Court, a member of the Council, and in 1823 president and commander-in-chief of New Brunswick. He was one of the Maine Boundary Commissioners. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Chipman, Ward (1786-1851). Son of preceding. Graduated at Harvard, 1805. Removed to St. John, and rose to the office of chief-justice of New Brunswick. Resigned, 1850. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Chippewa, Battle of. On the south side of Chippewa Creek, which empties into the Niagara not far from the falls. July 3rd, 1812, the Americans under Generals Brown, Winfield Scott and Ripley crossed the Niagara into Canada, captured Fort Erie, and marched down to Chippewa where on the fifth they were attacked by Riall who, after a desperate fight, was forced to withdraw his men and fall back on Queenston and Fort George. The British had 1,800 and the Americans about 5,000 men. Bib.: Lucas, Canadian War of 1812.

Chippewa Indians. A large tribe, of Algonquian stock, formerly ranging along both shores of Lakes Huron and Superior, and westward as far as North Dakota. First mentioned in the Jesuit Relation of 1640 as living around Sault Ste. Marie. During the eighteenth century, they fought successfully against the Sioux, Foxes, and Iroquois. They numbered in 1764 about 25,000; and at the present time count over 30,000, of whom about one-half are on reservations in Canada. Bib.: Hodge, Handbook of American Indians; Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes; Grant, Sauteux Indians in Masson, Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest.

Chittenden, Thomas (1730-1797). First governor of Vermont, 1778-1797. He took a very aggressive attitude, at the time of the Revolution, in demanding the separation of Vermont from New York and its recognition as a separate state. As there seemed little hope of that, he entered into secret negotiations with Haldimand with a view to bringing Vermont back to the British side, on condition that it should be received as a separate colony. He appears to have played a double part and attempted to persuade Washington of his loyalty to the cause of the revolting colonies. Ethan and Ira Allen (q.v.) were the principal agents in the movement to make Vermont once more a British province. Bib.: Chipman, Thomas Chittenden; Cyc. Am. Biog.

Cholera Epidemics, 1832 and 1834. In the spring of 1832 vessels from the British Isles with immigrants brought a virulent type of cholera to Canada. One ship from Dublin arrived in the St. Lawrence with nearly half the passengers down with the disease. In spite of the establishment of a quarantine station at Grosse Isle, below Quebec, and other sanitary precautions, cholera spread rapidly throughout both Lower and Upper Canada. Between June and the end of September 3,292 died. In 1834 another epidemic appeared. Cholera was immediately added to the other grievances against the government, and one of the Ninety-Two Resolutions is specifically devoted to the epidemic and the government’s responsibility therefor. Bib.: Kingsford, History of Canada, vol. ix; DeCelles, Papineau, Cartier.

Chouart dit des Groseilliers, Médard. Born in France about 1621. Came to Canada, 1642. After serving the Jesuits for some years as a donné, or lay helper, engaged in the fur trade, and with his brother-in-law Radisson (q.v.) made extensive explorations in the West and North, 1659-1663. With Radisson afterwards went to England and was instrumental in establishing the Hudson’s Bay Company, and laying the foundations of its gigantic fur trading monopoly on the shores of Hudson Bay. Bib.: Dionne, Chouart et Radisson (R. S. C., 1893); Sulte, Radisson in the North-West (R. S. C., 1904); Sulte, Découverte du Mississippi (R. S. C., 1903); Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company; Laut, Pathfinders of the West and Conquest of the Great North-West.

Christian Guardian. A weekly newspaper, founded at York in 1829. Egerton Ryerson its first editor. Exponent of Methodist views on religious, educational and political questions. Took an active part in the movement for the secularization of the Clergy Reserves, and opposed a state church in Canada. Merged in The New Outlook, 1925.

Christian Watchman. A weekly newspaper founded at St. John, N.B., in 1861, by James and Budd De Mille, to counteract the influence of the official Baptist paper, which was being used to promote the interests of a political group. It ran for one year, when, having achieved its purpose, it ceased publication. Contained a number of brilliant articles on political, historical and other subjects by the two brothers, who in fact wrote most of the material in each number. James De Mille was afterwards the author of a number of novels.

Christie, Alexander (1792-1874). Chief Factor in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1821. Succeeded Donald McKenzie as governor of Rupert’s Land, with headquarters at Fort Garry on the Red River. He was associated with Sir George Simpson on the Council of Assiniboia. Retired from the fur trade in 1849 and returned to his native Scotland. Two of his sons and a grandson were in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Bib.: Cowie, Company of Adventurers.

Christie, David (1818-1880). Born in Edinburgh, Scotland. Educated at Edinburgh High School. Came to Canada, 1833, and devoted himself to farming. Took a prominent part in politics as a leader of the Radical wing of the Reformers. Sat for Wentworth in the Legislative Assembly, 1851-1854, and for East Brant, 1855-1858. Elected to the Legislative Council, 1858, and held his seat until Confederation. Appointed to the Dominion Senate, 1867; secretary of state, 1873; Speaker of the Senate, 1874-1878. Administrator of Ontario during the illness of the lieutenant-governor, 1875. Died in Paris, Ontario. Bib.: Dent, Last Forty Years.

Christie, Robert (1788-1856). Born in Nova Scotia. Repeatedly expelled through Papineau’s influence from the Assembly of Lower Canada on the charge of having advised Dalhousie to dissolve the Legislature. Afterwards reconciled with Papineau. Re-elected after the union, and held his seat until 1854. Contributed to Quebec Gazette and Mercury. Bib.: History of the Late Province of Lower Canada, from the Commencement to the Close of its Existence as a Separate Province. For biog., see Morgan, Cel. Can.

Chronicle. Newspaper published at Halifax. Established by William Annand, 1843. Joseph Howe one of the principal contributors, and in 1844 became editor. Succeeded by Jonathan McCully. Howe contributed a series of articles attacking Confederation. When Howe accepted Confederation, the Chronicle bitterly attacked him as a renegade. Bib.: Longley, Joseph Howe.

Church of England. The first Anglican church in what is now Canada was built at Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1750, when Cornwallis was governor of the province. The first see was established in 1787. Dr. Charles Inglis (q.v.) as bishop of Nova Scotia had charge of the whole of British North America. The first service held in Quebec was in the Ursuline Convent, September, 1759. The first Anglican bishop of the diocese of Quebec was Dr. G. J. Mountain (q.v.), appointed in 1793; and in 1839 Dr. John Strachan (q.v.) became first bishop of Toronto. The early history of the Church in Upper Canada was involved with the political history of the country, in such matters as the Clergy Reserves, educational policy and the idea of a state church. As population grew, the eastern dioceses were subdivided into nine. The see of Rupert’s Land, founded 1849, was subsequently divided into Rupert’s Land, Moosonee, Saskatchewan, Calgary, Mackenzie River, Qu’Appelle, Athabaska, Keewatin, and Selkirk. In 1859 was established the see of British Columbia, divided later into New Westminster and Caledonia. In 1857 the Church of England Synod was legally constituted; and after that year bishops were elected by the votes of clergy and laity in Canada. The first Church Congress was held, 1883. The General Synod of the Church in the Dominion was established, 1893, and the metropolitans of Canada and Rupert’s Land were made archbishops, the first of whom were Dr. J. T. Lewis and Dr. R. Machray (q.v.). Its membership in Canada by the census of 1921 was 1,407,994. Bib.: Hopkins, Canada: An Ency., vol. 2; Cross, The Anglican Episcopate and the American Colonies; Anderson, History of Church of England in the Colonies; Akins, Church of England in North American Colonies; Taylor, The Last Three Bishops Appointed by the Crown; Lowndes, Bishops of the Day; Machray, Life of Archbishop Machray; Mockridge, Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland; Champion, The Anglican Church in Canada; Wynne, The Church in Greater Britain.

Churchill, Fort. See Prince of Wales Fort.

Churchill River. Rises in La Loche Lake, lat. 50° 10´ N., long. 109° 40´ W., and after a course of 1,000 miles, empties into Hudson Bay. The mouth of the river was discovered by Munk, a Danish navigator, in 1619, but it was not until 1774 that its upper waters were discovered by Joseph Frobisher (q.v.), and explored by Thomas Frobisher and Alexander Henry, the Elder (q.v.), in 1775. The Churchill was formerly known under various names: Danish River, in honour of Munk; English River, so called by Frobisher; and Missinipi, the native name. Bib.: Laut, Conquest of the Great North-West; Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company; Atlas of Canada; Ami, Canada and Newfoundland.

Civil Law. After the cession of Canada to England, this became a matter of vital importance to the French population. The British authorities found themselves in a very difficult position. The attempt to enforce English law, in a community ignorant of the language and accustomed to an entirely different code, had to be abandoned as impracticable. The situation was complicated by distrust and ill-feeling between the French and the numerically weak but very aggressive English population. After a period of ineffective compromise that ended in something like legal chaos, it was finally decided to adopt the plan that Carleton had favoured—the retention of the French civil law and the adoption of the British criminal law, and this decision was embodied in the Quebec Act. Bib.: Bourinot, Constitutional History of Canada and How Canada is Governed; Ashley, Earlier Constitutional History of Canada; Houston, Canadian Constitutional Documents; Egerton and Grant, Canadian Constitutional Development; Bradley, Lord Dorchester.

Civil List. In England this means the sum voted by Parliament for the support of the Royal household. In Canada it meant the amount voted for the expenses of government, or what is to-day known as the Estimates. Its control was a fruitful source of dispute between the governors and the Assemblies in the early days of all the colonies. Durham in his Report had recommended that the control of the revenues of the Crown should be vested in the Assembly, and Lord John Russell, in 1839, said he was willing that the Crown revenues should be placed entirely at the disposal of the Assembly, provided a permanent provision was made for the Civil List. Sydenham shared these views, and was able to put them into practice. Eventually the principle was accepted that the Legislature should control the revenues without any such proviso, and the expenses of government were left to the judgment of the representatives of the people. Bib.: Egerton and Grant, Canadian Constitutional Development.

Civil Secretary. The internal management of the provinces, at one time in the hands of the provincial secretaries of Upper and Lower Canada, was for many years controlled by the civil secretary of the lieutenant-governor. Sydenham had these duties transferred to members of the provincial government, and confined the duties of his own secretary to correspondence with the Home government and foreign governments. Bib.: Shortt, Lord Sydenham.

Clark, George Rogers (1752-1818). American frontier leader. A Virginian who had become one of the pioneers in Kentucky. In July, 1778, he surprised and took the British forts of Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi, and Vincennes on the Wabash. In December, Hamilton, lieutenant-governor of Detroit, retook Vincennes. In February, 1779, Clark again captured the post, and treated the garrison with unnecessary harshness. Bib.: Campaign in the Illinois; English, Conquest of the Country North-West of the Ohio.

Clark, Sir William Mortimer. Born in Aberdeen, Scotland, 1836. Educated at Marischal College, Aberdeen; studied law at the University of Edinburgh, and admitted a writer to the signet, 1859. Came to Toronto, 1859; called to the bar of Ontario, 1869; Q. C., 1887. Chairman of Knox College. Engaged largely in financial affairs. Lieutenant-governor of Ontario, 1903-1908. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Clark-Kennedy, W. H. Lieut.-Colonel, 24th Battalion, C. E. F. Victoria Cross. At Arras, on the 27th and 28th of August, 1918, he led his battalion with conspicuous bravery, initiative and skill, under very heavy shell and machine-gun fire, capturing machine-gun nests and making it possible for the whole brigade to move forward. Under continuous fire he went up and down the line improving the position and inspiring his men. Though severely wounded, he refused aid, dragged himself into a shell hole, and despite intense pain and loss of blood, continued to direct his men until he had established a strong line of defence. “It is impossible,” says the official report, “to overestimate the results achieved by the valour and leadership of this officer.”

Clarke, Sir Alured (1745-1832). Served in Germany under Lord Granby in 1745. Accompanied Lord Howe to America. Lieutenant-governor of Jamaica, 1782-1790. Lieutenant-governor of Lower Canada, 1790-1795. Administered the government in 1791 in Dorchester’s absence. Put into effect the important Constitutional Act of that year. He was responsible for the rather inappropriate Old Country names applied at this time to the newly-created counties in French-speaking Canada. After leaving the country, filled several high offices in India, finally becoming governor-general. Returned to England, 1802, and made field-marshal, 1830. Clarke township in Durham county, Ontario, named after him. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.

Clarke, Leonard. Acting-corporal 2nd Battalion, C. E. F. Victoria Cross. Near Pozières, September 10th, 1916, when detailed with his section of bombers to clear the continuation of a newly captured trench, and cover the construction of a “block,” most of his party having become casualties, about twenty of the enemy under two officers attacked the trench. He boldly advanced against them, emptied his revolver and two enemy rifles that he had picked up, and when the enemy turned and ran he pursued them, shooting four and capturing a fifth.

Claus, Daniel (1727-1787). Born in Germany, he came to America about 1748, and with Conrad Weiser went on an embassy to the Iroquois. He rapidly picked up the Indian languages, and was sent to assist Sir William Johnson, whose daughter he married. Became assistant superintendent of Indian affairs. Served as a Loyalist in the American Revolution; captain in the Royal American Regiment. Commanded the Indian auxiliaries in 1777 in St. Leger’s expedition against Fort Stanwix on the Mohawk. Promoted to colonel, and in 1812 commanded the militia on the Niagara frontier. Died in Wales. Bib.: Cruikshank, Reminiscences of Colonel Claus (Canadiana, 1890); Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii; Sabine, Loyalists.

Clear Grits. The Radical wing of the Reform party in Upper Canada. Corresponded to the Rouge party in Lower Canada. David Christie credited with originating the name. “We want,” he told George Brown, “only those who are Clear Grit.” Among the leaders of the group were Christie, Caleb Hopkins, Dr. John Rolph, James Lesslie and William McDougall. Brown was for some years a bitter opponent of the Clear Grits and their policy, but afterwards became their leader. They advocated universal suffrage, vote by ballot, biennial parliaments, free trade and direct taxation, secularization of the Clergy Reserves, abolition of primogeniture, and various reforms in legal administration. Bib.: Dent, Last Forty Years; Mackenzie, George Brown; Lewis, George Brown; Bourinot, Elgin; Kennedy, Lord Elgin.

Clergy Reserves. This vexed problem arose out of a provision in the Act of 1791 that certain lands were to be set apart for the support of a “Protestant Clergy.” These Reserves were at first claimed exclusively by the Church of England. In 1822 the Presbyterians demanded a share, on the ground that the Church of Scotland was recognized by the Act of Union between England and Scotland as an Established Church. Other Protestant denominations afterwards claimed a share, arguing that the Reserves had been intended for the benefit of all Protestant clergy, rather than for the clergy of any particular denomination. The dispute was maintained for many years, with increasing bitterness, in the Legislature, in the press, and among the people in general. In 1819 the law officers of the Crown had given their opinion in favour of the Presbyterian claims. Colborne, in 1836, brought the indignation of the other denominations to the boiling point by endowing forty-five Anglican rectories. This became one of the grievances leading up to the Rebellion of 1837-1838. Sydenham, in 1840, persuaded the Assembly to pass an Act providing for the sale of the Clergy Reserves and the distribution of the proceeds among the different Protestant denominations. The Act was disallowed in England. The Imperial Parliament itself then tried its hand at settling the question, with such indifferent success that the entire secularization of the Reserves became one of the main planks in the platform of the Reform party. However, when that party came into power in 1848, it showed such reluctance either to ask for the repeal of the Imperial Act or to bring down legislation of its own, that the Clear Grits succeeded in breaking up the old Reform party and overthrowing the ministry. Finally, in 1854, the Coalition government known as the MacNab-Morin administration introduced and passed a bill for the secularization of the Reserves. By the irony of events, the man who was mainly instrumental in settling this bitter problem was neither a Clear Grit nor a Reformer, but the Conservative statesman, John A. Macdonald. See also John Strachan; George Brown; Egerton Ryerson; Robert Baldwin. Bib.: Lindsey, The Clergy Reserves; Hincks’ Letters in Montreal Herald, December, 1882; Dent, Last Forty Years; Bradshaw, Self-Government in Canada; Ryerson, Story of My Life; Bethune, Memoir of Bishop Strachan; Parkin, Sir John Macdonald; Bradley, Lord Dorchester; Lewis, George Brown; Bourinot, Lord Elgin; Leacock, Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks; Burwash, Egerton Ryerson.

Clinton, Sir Henry (1738-1795). Son of George Clinton, governor of Newfoundland, 1732, and governor-in-chief of New York, 1741. Sent to America, 1775; served in the South, and with Howe at Philadelphia; succeeded him as commander-in-chief, 1778; captured Charleston, 1780; succeeded by Sir Guy Carleton, and returned to England, 1782. He was for some time in correspondence with Haldimand in connection with the attempt to bring Vermont back to British allegiance. In 1794 elected to the British House of Commons. Rose to rank of general, and became governor of Gibraltar, where he died. Bib.: Works: Narrative of the Campaign in North America, Rejoinder to Cornwallis’ Observations; Observations on Stedman’s American War. For biog., see Kingsford, History of Canada; Cyc. Am. Biog.

Clitherow, John (1782-1852). Entered army, 1799; lieutenant-colonel, 1812; served in the Egyptian campaign, 1801; the Hanover campaign, 1805; the Walcheren expedition, 1809, and throughout the Peninsular War. Appointed major-general, 1830; lieutenant-general, 1841. Administered the government of Canada after the death of Sydenham, 1841. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.

Coats Island. South-east of Southampton Island, Hudson Bay. Named after Captain W. Coats of the Hudson’s Bay Company, who made many voyages to Hudson Bay between 1727 and 1751. Bib.: White, Place Names in Northern Canada.

Cobb, Sylvanus (1709-1762). A native of Plymouth, Mass. Served in the expedition against Louisbourg, 1745. For some years engaged in the coast defence of Nova Scotia. Served at the second siege of Louisbourg under Amherst and Boscawen. Removed to Liverpool, Nova Scotia. Died of the plague at the siege of Havana, 1762. Bib.: Murdoch, History of Nova Scotia; Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia, ed. by Akins.

Cochrane, Thomas (1777-1804). Born in Nova Scotia. A member of the English bar. Chief-justice of the Supreme Court of Prince Edward Island, 1801; judge of the King’s Bench of Upper Canada, 1804. Drowned in wreck of the Speedy, while on his way to hold court. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Read, Lives of the Judges.

Cockburn, James (1819-1883). Born in Berwick-on-Tweed, England. Came to Canada, and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1846. Practised his profession at Cobourg. Represented West Northumberland in the Assembly, 1861-1867; solicitor-general for Upper Canada, 1864-1867. A delegate to the Quebec Conference. After Confederation sat in the House of Commons for West Northumberland, 1867-1874, and during that time was Speaker of the House. Last Speaker to exercise the privilege of addressing the governor-general on measures of the session, 1869. Again elected to the House of Commons, 1878, and retained his seat until 1881, when he retired to accept the chairmanship of the commission on the consolidation of the statutes of Canada. Bib.: Taylor, Brit. Am.; Rattray, The Scot in British North America; Dent, Last Forty Years.

Cocking, Mathew. An explorer of the Hudson’s Bay Company, who went inland from York Factory, on Hudson Bay, to the country of the Blackfeet, in 1772-1773. On his return from this journey, he was sent again to the Saskatchewan to build Cumberland House, accompanying Samuel Hearne. Cocking was in charge there in 1775 when Alexander Henry visited the post. Bib.: Burpee, An Adventurer from Hudson Bay (R. S. C. Trans., 1908).

Coffin, William Foster (1808-1878). Born in Bath, England. Came to Quebec with his father, an army officer, 1813. Returned to England, 1815, and until 1824 was a student at Eton. Came back to Canada, 1830. Called to the bar, 1835. Took part in the suppression of the Rebellion of 1837. Joint sheriff of Montreal, 1840-1851. Appointed commissioner of ordnance lands, 1856, and one of the Intercolonial Railway commissioners, 1868. Held many important offices under the government of Canada and in the militia. Bib.: Works: History of the War of 1812; Three Chapters on a Triple Project; Thoughts on Defence from a Canadian Point of View; Quirks of Diplomacy. For biog., see Morgan, Annual Register, 1878.

Coke, Sir John (1563-1644). Sat in Parliament, 1621-1629. In 1629 Charles I appointed him one of the commissioners to confer with the French ambassador as to the restoration of Quebec. Secretary of state, 1625; a commissioner of the treasury, 1635-1636. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.

Colbert, Jean Baptiste (1619-1683). First minister to Louis XIV, and a very capable and honest statesman. His career, says Professor Colby, was “more intimately bound up with the colonizing of Canada than that of any other minister, Richelieu not excepted.” He created the Company of the West Indies (q.v.), and to a large extent directed the policies of Courcelles, Frontenac, and other colonial administrators. He encouraged the governors in their efforts to keep the ecclesiastical power within bounds. The Mississippi was named Colbert by Frontenac, and for a time Louisiana was called La Colbertie. Bib.: Colby, Canadian Types of the Old Régime; Chambers, Biog. Dict.

Colborne, Sir John. See Seaton.

Colby, Charles William (1867-). Born at Stanstead, Quebec. Educated at McGill and Harvard. A.M., Ph.D., D.C.L. Lecturer in English language and history at McGill, 1893-1895. Kingsford professor of history at McGill, 1895-1910. Appointed a member of the Canadian Historical Manuscripts Commission, 1907. Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, 1909. Bib.: The Sources of History; Canadian Types of the Old Régime.

Colebrooke, Sir William Macbean George (1787-1870). After serving in the army, and as political agent in the East, became lieutenant-governor of the Bahamas, 1834-1837; governor of the Leeward Islands, 1837; and in 1841 succeeded Sir John Harvey as lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, where he aroused criticism by appointing his son-in-law provincial secretary. Afterwards governor of Barbados and the Windward Islands, 1848-1856. Bib.: Hannay, History of New Brunswick; Rattray, The Scot in British North America; Dict. Nat. Biog.

Coles, George (1810-1875). Premier of Prince Edward Island in 1851, and again in 1855, and in 1867. A delegate from Prince Edward Island to the Quebec Conference. Bib.: Campbell, Prince Edward Island.

College of New Brunswick. See New Brunswick, University of.

Collins, Francis. Published the Canadian Freeman in 1825. Reported the legislative debates. Convicted of libel; fined and imprisoned. Bib.: Dent, Upper Canadian Rebellion.

Collver, Jabez. Presbyterian minister, the first to come to Upper Canada. Took up land in the county of Norfolk in 1783. Laboured long and zealously in the district. Bib.: Gregg, Presbyterian Church.

Colonial Advocate. Newspaper published at Queenston, in 1824, by William Lyon Mackenzie. Moved to York the following year. In it Mackenzie discussed the public questions of the day with frankness, and at first with moderation. He reported the debates of the Assembly. In 1826 he advocated a Confederation of the North American colonies. Gradually the tone of his criticism of the ruling faction became more caustic, and in 1826 what is described as a “genteel mob” broke into the office of the Advocate, wrecked the printing press and threw the type into the bay. In 1832 the office was again broken into and some of the type destroyed. The newspaper stopped publication in November, 1834. Bib.: Lindsey, William Lyon Mackenzie.

Colonial Conference, 1894. Opened at Ottawa, June 28th, with Mackenzie Bowell in the chair. Delegates present from the Imperial government, New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, Cape Colony, and Canada. Resolutions were passed in favour of an Imperial Customs Union, improved steamship communication and a Pacific Cable. Conference adjourned, July 11th. See also Imperial Conference. Bib.: Proceedings of the Colonial Conference, 1894; Ewart, Kingdom of Canada.

Colonial Ministers of England. Secretaries of state for the colonies. The official channel of communication between the government of Canada and the British government. From 1768 they are as follows, with their dates of assuming office: Earl of Hillsborough, 1768; Earl of Dartmouth, 1772; Lord George Sackville Germain, 1776; Welbore Ellis, 1782; Earl of Shelburne, 1782; Lord Grantham, 1782; Thomas Townsend, 1782; Lord North, 1783; Marquess Caermarthen, 1783; Lord Sydney, 1784; William Wyndham Grenville, 1789; Henry Dundas, 1791; Duke of Portland, 1794; Henry Dundas, 1794; Lord Hobart, 1801; Earl Camden, 1804; Viscount Castlereagh, 1805; William Windham, 1806; Viscount Castlereagh, 1807; Earl of Liverpool, 1809; Earl Bathurst, 1812; Viscount Goderich, 1827; William Huskisson, 1827; Sir George Murray, 1828; Viscount Goderich, 1830; Lord Stanley, 1833; Thomas Spring-Rice, 1834; Earl of Aberdeen, 1834; Lord Glenelg, 1835; Marquess of Normanby, 1839; Lord John Russell, 1839; Lord Stanley, 1841; William Ewart Gladstone, 1845; Earl Grey, 1846; Sir John Somerset Pakington, 1852; Duke of Newcastle, 1852; Sir George Grey, 1854; Sidney Herbert, 1855; Lord John Russell, 1855; Sir William Molesworth, 1855; Henry Labouchère, 1855; Lord Stanley, 1858; Sir E. G. Bulwer-Lytton, 1858; Duke of Newcastle, 1859; Edward Cardwell, 1864; Earl of Carnarvon, 1866; Duke of Buckingham and Chandos, 1867; Earl Granville, 1868; Earl of Kimberley, 1870; Earl of Carnarvon, 1874; Sir Michael E. Hicks-Beach, 1878; Earl of Kimberley, 1880; Earl of Derby, 1882; Lord Stanley of Preston, 1885; Earl Granville, 1886; Edward Stanhope, 1886; Baron Knutsford, 1887; Marquess of Ripon, 1892; Joseph Chamberlain, 1895; Alfred Lyttelton, 1903; Earl of Elgin and Kincardine, 1905; Earl of Crewe, 1908; Lewis Harcourt, 1910; Andrew Bonar Law, 1915; W. H. Long, 1916; Viscount Milner, 1919; Winston Spencer Churchill, 1921; Duke of Devonshire, 1922; J. H. Thomas, 1924; L. C. M. S. Amery, 1924. Colonial affairs before 1768 were in the hands of the Council of Plantations or of Trade and Plantations. In 1768 a secretary of state was appointed for American and colonial affairs. In 1782 this office was abolished and colonial matters turned over to the Home department. In 1794 the office of secretary of state for the colonies was combined with that of secretary for war. In 1854 colonial affairs were put under the exclusive charge of a principal secretary of state. In 1925 the office was created of secretary of state for dominion affairs.

Colonial Ministers of France. Ministers of Marine and the Colonies. The official channel of communication between the government of Canada and the French Court. From 1588 to the close of the period of French rule in Canada, they were as follows: Ruzé de Beaulieu, 1588-1613; De Loménie de la Ville-aux-Clercs, 1613-1615; De Loménie de Brienne, 1615-1643; Guénégaud de Plancy, 1643-1662; De Lyonne, 1662-1669; Jean-Baptiste Colbert, 1669-1683; Colbert de Seignelay, 1683-1690; Louis Phélipeaux de Pontchartrain, 1690-1699; Jérôme Comte de Pontchartrain Phélipeaux, 1699-1715; Fleurian d’Armenonville, 1718-1722; Comte de Morville, 1722-1723; Comte de Maurepas, 1723-1749; Comte de Jouy Rouillé, 1749-1754; Machault d’Arnouville, 1754-1757; Peraine de Mauras, 1757-1758; Marquis de Massiac, 1758; Nicolas René Berryer, 1758-1761. From 1715 to 1718 the department of marine and the colonies was administered by the Council of Marine.

Colonization. Bishop Laval deeply interested in question. In 1663 three hundred embarked at La Rochelle for Canada. These were too young and inexperienced, and a better class of settler sent the following year. A system of apprenticeship was established. The Sovereign Council asked for men from the north of France because of their docility and industry. In 1665 the Queen sent out a number of girls, and the same year a number of the disbanded soldiers of the Carignan Regiment came out as settlers. Various companies were chartered from time to time, one of whose principal obligations was the bringing out of settlers to New France, but their promises were generally much better than their performance. Champlain at Quebec, Maisonneuve at Montreal, and De Monts at Port Royal, had made sincere efforts at colonization, and a few statesmen like Talon had developed a consistent policy of immigration, but for the most part the efforts were spasmodic and half-hearted. For many years after the cession of Canada to England, colonization was rather a matter of voluntary effort than government policy. The United Empire Loyalists came to seek an asylum in British territory; the Irish came because they were driven out of their own country by famine; the Scotch because the land policy in the Highlands left them no alternative but emigration. In time each of the British North American colonies adopted a more or less vigorous policy of colonization, and that was continued and expanded by the Dominion. Bib.: Kingsford, History of Canada.

Coltman, W. B. A merchant of Quebec, and lieutenant-colonel in the militia. Sent by Governor Sherbrooke, 1816, to Red River, to investigate dispute between the Hudson’s Bay and the North West Companies. He returned to Quebec in November, 1817, and made an elaborate report to Governor Sherbrooke on the relations of the two Companies and conditions generally in the western fur country.

Columbia Fur Company. Organized by John Jacob Astor in 1822 to exploit the fur trade on the Pacific Coast. It was recruited largely from the North West Company. See also Astor; Pacific Fur Company.

Columbia River. Rises in Upper Columbia Lake, latitude 50°° 10´, longitude 115° 50´, and flows into the Pacific Ocean. Total length about 1,150 miles. Supposed to be Carver’s “River of Oregon.” Its mouth was discovered by Robert Gray, of Boston, May, 1792, and named by him after his vessel. Entered and explored by Broughton the same year. It was first reached overland by Lewis and Clark, in 1805; and first explored and surveyed throughout its entire length by David Thompson, of the North West Company, 1807-1811. Its principal branch is the Kootenay. See also Gray, Robert; Broughton, W. R.; Lewis and Clark; Thompson, David. Bib.: Thompson, Narrative; Lewis and Clark, Expedition; Cox, Adventures on the Columbia; Ross, Fur Traders; Coues, Henry-Thompson Journals; Kane, Wanderings of an Artist; Symons, Upper Columbia.

Combe, Robert Grierson. Lieutenant, 27th Battalion, C. E. F. Victoria Cross. On May 3rd, 1917, south of Acheville, he steadied his company under intense fire, and led them through the enemy barrage, reaching the objective with only five men. With great coolness and courage he proceeded to bomb the enemy; then collected small groups of men and captured the objective, together with eighty prisoners. He repeatedly charged the enemy, driving them before him, and, whilst personally leading his bombers, was killed by an enemy sniper.

Commerce. See Trade.

Commercial Union. Complete and entire free trade with the United States, first proposed by Ira Gould, before Montreal Board of Trade, February, 1852. (See Montreal Gazette, February 18-22, 1852). The question was repeatedly discussed in succeeding years, down to 1891, in and out of Parliament, and for a time was adopted by the Liberal party as a trade policy, but abandoned before they came into power in 1896. The supporters of the policy, under the leadership of men like Erastus Wiman, had organized the Commercial Union League. Many business men joined it, discouraged by the long-continued depression of trade. See also Unrestricted Reciprocity; Reciprocity; Zollverein; Smith, Goldwin; Wiman, Erastus. A concise history of the movement will be found in Johnson’s First Things in Canada. Bib.: Canadian Emancipation and Commercial Union; Adam, Handbook of Commercial Union; Willison, Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal Party; Pope, Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald.

Commission des Monuments Historiques. Of the province of Quebec. Established, 1922. Chairman of the commission, Hon. Adélard Turgeon, president of the Legislative Council of Quebec. The other members are: Pierre-Georges Roy, Victor Morin, W. D. Lighthall, E. Z. Massicotte and C. J. Simard. The general purpose of the commission is to conserve “toutes les vielles choses canadiennes d’intérêt historique ou artistique.” The commission published its first report in 1923, accompanied by a voluminous illustrated list in two volumes entitled Les Monuments commémoratifs de la Province de Québec, prepared by Pierre-Georges Roy.

Commission of Conservation. Created by the Conservation Act, 1909, and amending Acts in 1910 and 1913. Its general purpose was both directly and in coöperation with other federal, provincial and local agencies, to conserve the vast natural resources of the Dominion. Sir Clifford Sifton was chairman, James White secretary, and later assistant to the chairman. There was a large and influential membership representing all sections of the country and a wide variety of expert knowledge. The commission published a number of valuable reports and other documents. It was abolished in 1921.

Commission on Public Records. Appointed, 1912, and consisted of Sir Joseph Pope, E. F. Jarvis and A. G. Doughty. To investigate into and report upon the state of the records of the different departments of the government of Canada. Reported in 1914. Found very inadequate facilities for safeguarding valuable public records in the various departments. Resulted in a very large number of documents of historical interest being transferred to the public archives.

Commissions. See International Boundary Commission; International Joint Commission; International Waterways Commission; International Joint High Commission; Commission of Conservation; Commission on Public Records; Commission des Monuments Historiques; Historic Sites and Monuments Board.

Company of Canada (Merchant Adventurers of Canada). Organized by David Kirke, and chartered by Charles I, to exploit the fur trade of the St. Lawrence. The restoration of Canada to France in 1632 brought the operations of Kirke, Sir William Alexander, and their associates to an untimely end. Bib.: Douglas, Old France in the New World; Kirke, The First English Conquest of Canada.

Company of De Caën. Organized by William de Caën and his nephew, Emery, merchants of Rouen. Monopoly granted the company on usual terms as to settlement, missionaries, etc., 1621. Absorbed Champlain’s Company, 1622, and the united Companies carried on trade until 1633. Bib.: Biggar, Early Trading Companies of New France; Parkman, Pioneers of France.

Company of New France (Compagnie des Cent-Associés). Established, 1627, by Cardinal Richelieu, on the advice of Isaac de Razilly. A monopoly of fifteen years was granted, with full ownership of the entire valley of the St. Lawrence, in return for which the Company was to take out three hundred colonists every year up to 1643. No very serious effort was made to carry out this obligation, although the Company continued to enjoy its monopoly until 1663. The Company sent out four vessels in 1628 with provisions, munitions and a few settlers, but the little fleet was captured by David Kirke. The Company also bore the expense of some of the Jesuit mission stations; but it soon got into financial difficulties, and in the end was not reluctant to surrender its charter to the king. Bib.: Biggar, Early Trading Companies of New France; Parkman, Pioneers of France.

Company of Rouen and St. Malo (Champlain’s Company). Established at the instance of Champlain, in 1614. The shares were divided among the merchants of Rouen and St. Malo. The terms of their charter required the Company to bring out colonists, but they did not take this obligation very seriously. They did, however, make one notable addition to the population of New France, for in the spring of 1617 they brought out Louis Hébert and his family. Hébert’s experience as a colonist was not such as to encourage others to follow his example. The Company’s monopoly was cancelled in 1620. Bib.: Biggar, Early Trading Companies of New France; Parkman, Pioneers of France.

Company of the Colony. Organized in Montreal in 1700 to secure the monopoly of the western fur trade. Became insolvent a few years later, and in 1705 by royal command they surrendered the trade to Cadillac, who had been one of the associates. See Wis. Hist. Coll., xvi; Canadian Archives Report, 1899; Burton, Cadillac, 17-20. Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin, mentions another company of the same name, organized in 1645 by a group of local merchants in Canada, which obtained valuable concessions from the Company of New France, and in return paid the latter company one-fourth of their gross receipts. The company flourished until 1650, when the destruction of the Huron settlements led to its insolvency and final dissolution.

Company of the West. Later known as La Compagnie des Indes. Also called the Mississippi Company. Organized by the famous Scotch speculator, John Law, and chartered, 1717. Granted the fur trading monopoly of Louisiana, and the right to buy at a fixed price the beaver of Canada for twenty-five years. Bib.: Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin.

Company of the West Indies (Compagnie des Indes Occidentales). Chartered by Louis XIV, 1664, following the cancellation of the charter of the Company of New France. Its field of operations was enormous, covering the west coast of Africa, the east coast of South America from the Amazon to the Orinoco, Canada, Acadia, and Newfoundland. The Christianization of the native tribes was given as the principal object of the Company, commerce being of only secondary importance. Despite its many privileges, and the readiness with which its stock was subscribed, it did not prosper, and by 1672 was hopelessly in debt. Three years later its charter was revoked, so far as Canada was concerned. Bib.: Douglas, Old France in the New World; Parkman, Old Régime.

Concomly. A very shrewd, one-eyed savage, chief of the Chinook Indians near the mouth of the Columbia, who took an active part in the little drama of politics and the fur trade, in which the other actors were the representatives of John Jacob Astor and the Columbia Fur Company, and the North West Company. Concomly’s daughter married Duncan McDougall, one of the leading fur traders. Bib.: Coues, Henry-Thompson Journals; Irving, Astoria; Cox, Adventures on the Columbia.

Condé, Prince Henri de (1588-1646). In 1613 he sent out three vessels to trade on the St. Lawrence. The king had made him lieutenant-general of New France in 1612, and Champlain’s Company had to pay him a large salary as one of its obligations. Having conspired against the queen regent he was imprisoned, and the Maréchal de Thémines became temporarily viceroy in his place. Condé was restored and retained the office until 1620. Bib.: Parkman, Pioneers of France.

Confederation. George Johnson, in his First Things in Canada gives in detail the genesis of the idea of a confederation of the various provinces or colonies of British North America, which he traces back to Sir Francis Nicholson’s proposal of 1690. That, however, related not to what is now Canada, but to the then British colonies on the Atlantic seaboard. So far as Canada is concerned, various schemes were put forward at various times by Chief-Justice Sewell, the Duke of Kent, R. J. Uniacke, Robert Gourlay, Bishop Strachan, William Lyon Mackenzie, Lord Durham, George R. Young, Major Warburton, Henry Sherwood, James W. Johnstone, P. S. Hamilton, Joseph Howe, A. T. Galt, and many others. The first definite step in the movement looking towards the union of the British North American colonies, was the Charlottetown Conference, 1864. Delegates from the three Maritime Provinces met to consider the union of those provinces. At the Conference, delegates from Canada (constituting what are now the provinces of Ontario and Quebec) appeared, and urged the broadening of the discussion to cover all the provinces. Out of this meeting grew the Quebec Conference of the same year, attended by delegates from Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland; the two latter subsequently withdrew from the movement. The Quebec Conference drew up a series of resolutions, which were made the basis of the final legislation. In 1866 delegates from the provinces met at the Westminster Hotel in London, and framed the British North America Act. The Act was passed by the Imperial Parliament, and received the queen’s assent, March, 1867. It was proclaimed throughout the new Dominion of Canada, July 1st, 1867. Manitoba was created a province, July 15th, 1870. British Columbia joined the union, July 20th, 1871; and Prince Edward Island, July 1st, 1873. The provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan were created September 1st, 1905. See also Charlottetown Conference; Quebec Conference; Westminster Conference; Macdonald; Tupper; Brown; Galt; Howe; Cartier. Bib.: Whelan, Union of the British Provinces; Cauchon, Union of British North American Provinces; Howe, Organization of the Empire; McGee, Two Speeches on Union of the Provinces; Hamilton, Union of the Colonies of British North America; Pope, Confederation Documents; Rawlings, Confederation of the British North American Provinces; Parliamentary Debates on Confederation, 1865; Bourinot, Constitutional History of Canada; Egerton and Grant, Canadian Constitutional Development; Borden, Canadian Constitutional Studies; Colquhoun, Fathers of Confederation; Kennedy, The Constitution of Canada; Shortt and Doughty, Constitutional Documents; Memoirs of Ralph Vansittart; Gray, Confederation; Keith, Responsible Government in the Dominion; Munro, Constitution of Canada; Hammond, Confederation and its Leaders. References to pamphlet and other material on this subject will be found in Johnson, First Things in Canada.

Congress, United States. Published and circulated an address to the French Canadians in 1774, a queer mixture of cajolery and threats, designed to win them to the cause of the revolting colonies. Sent a commission to Canada in 1776 to examine the military situation and probe the mind of the habitant. Its secret agents penetrated every part of Canada in 1778, securing information and spreading sedition. One of its plans was to establish a French newspaper in Montreal, with Mesplet as editor, but this was abandoned when the American army retreated from the country. Bib.: Lucas, History of Canada.

Connaught, H. R. H. Prince Arthur William Patrick Albert, Duke of (1850-). Succeeded Earl Grey as governor-general of Canada, 1911-1916. His term of office was marked by the Imperial Conference in London; the defeat of the Laurier government and the coming into office of Robert L. Borden; loss of the steamship Titanic; creation of Dominions Royal Commission; extension of the boundaries of Quebec, Ontario and Manitoba; trade agreement with the West Indies; death of Lord Strathcona; loss of Empress of Ireland; outbreak of war with Germany; sailing of the first Canadian contingent; Canadian war loans; destruction by fire of the houses of parliament at Ottawa; battles of Ypres, St. Julien, Festubert, Givenchy, St. Eloi and Sanctuary Wood. One of the Duke’s last public acts in Canada was the laying of the corner-stone of the new parliament buildings.

Connell, Charles. As postmaster-general of New Brunswick he won fame of a sort by having a provincial five-cent postage stamp made in 1860 with his own effigy in place of the queen’s. It was promptly recalled, but not before a few stamps had got into circulation. The Connell stamp is now among the rarities of philately. Connell was subjected to a great deal of ridicule and had to resign. In 1865 elected for Carleton county, and became a member of the Mitchell government the same year. Bib.: Hannay, Wilmot, Tilley.

Connolly, Thomas Louis (1815-1876). Born in County Cork, Ireland; studied for the church; came to Canada; Roman Catholic bishop of Fredericton, 1852; consecrated archbishop of Halifax, 1859. A warm personal friend of Thomas D’Arcy McGee, and a strong supporter of Confederation.

Connor, George Skeffington. Born in Ireland. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin. Came to Canada, 1832, with William Hume Blake. Settled on a farm near Lake Simcoe. Called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1842. Sat in the Assembly as a Reformer, 1859-1862; judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1863. Died in Toronto, 1863. Bib.: Read, Lives of the Judges.

Conolly, William. A chief factor in the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1825. He succeeded John Stuart in charge of the New Caledonia department. He married a native wife, and his beautiful and accomplished daughters became the wives of Sir James Douglas and another leader of the fur trade. Bib.: Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Conseil Souverain. See Sovereign Council.

Conservative Party. It is difficult to fix any precise date for the adoption in Canada of this name for what had previously been known as the Tory party or the Tories. In England it came into general use about the middle of the nineteenth century, but never altogether supplanted the older name. In Canada it was used at about the same time, and very rapidly supplanted the old name, perhaps because of the changing point-of-view of its adherents to whom what had once been regarded as Tory principles were no longer acceptable. While it inherited some of the traditions of its predecessor, its point of view was rather that of a growing, ambitious and self-conscious community than of a weak colony. It began to look to the future rather than to the past. With its early history are associated the names of such men as Macdonald, Tupper, Galt, Cartier, Tilley, McGee, and Campbell. See also Tory Party; Liberal-Conservative Party. Bib.: Pope, Sir John Macdonald; Boyd, Sir Georges Étienne-Cartier; Tupper, Recollections of Sixty Years; Skelton, Sir Alexander Galt; Hannay, Sir Leonard Tilley; Saunders, Three Premiers of Nova Scotia; Lewis, Canada under Macdonald, 1878-1891, and Four Premiers, 1891-1896, in Canada and its Provinces, vol. vi; Dent, Last Forty Years.

Constitutional Act, 1791. The Act was designed to harmonize the conflicting interests of French and English by dividing Quebec into two provinces—Upper and Lower Canada—thereby giving to each a larger control of its own local affairs. It established in each province a Legislative Council, appointed by the crown for life, and a Legislative Assembly, elected by the people. See other constitutional Acts: Quebec Act, 1774; Union Act, 1840; British North America Act, 1867. Bib.: Bourinot, Parliamentary Procedure and Government and Manual of the Constitutional History of Canada; Houston, Canadian Constitutional Documents; Dominion Archives Report, 1890; Watson, Constitutional History of Canada; Durham, Report; Bradshaw, Self-Government in Canada; Egerton and Grant, Canadian Constitutional Development; Kingsford, History of Canada; Shortt and Doughty, Constitutional Documents of Canada, 1759-1791; Doughty and McArthur, Constitutional Documents of Canada, 1791-1818.

Constitutional Associations. Established in Quebec and Montreal in 1838 by the English element for the purpose of maintaining British connection, and securing the reunion of Upper and Lower Canada. Delegates were sent to Upper Canada to urge coöperation and also to England to press their views upon the British government.

Constitutional Reform Society. Organized in Upper Canada in 1836. William Baldwin was president and Francis Hincks secretary. Its programme called for the establishment of responsible government and the abolition of the Rectories established by Sir John Colborne out of the Clergy Reserves.

Contrecœur. See Pécaudy de Contrecœur.

Cook, Captain James (1728-1779). Served in Canada during siege of Quebec, 1759. Discovered New Zealand, 1769, and New South Wales, 1770. In his famous voyage of 1776-1778, explored the north-west coast of America. The object of this voyage was partly exploration and partly to safeguard England’s interests in the North Pacific, menaced by both Spain and Russia. The discovery of the North-West passage was the purpose of Cook as it had been of many earlier navigators, and was to be of others yet to come. For the discovery of this passage the British Admiralty had offered a prize of twenty thousand pounds. He first sighted the coast in lat. 44° north, was driven out to sea, and returned to the coast at 49° 30´, Nootka Sound. Continuing north he discovered and named Prince William Sound and Cook’s Inlet, visited Unalaska, and sailed up through Bering Strait into the Arctic. On the return voyage the following year, he was murdered by the natives of Owhyhee or Hawaii, in the Sandwich Islands. Bib.: Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. For biog., see Besant, Captain Cook; Laut, Vikings of the Pacific; Dict. Nat. Biog.

Cook River. Known to-day as Cook Inlet, on the coast of Alaska. Discovered by Captain James Cook on his last voyage, 1777, and named after him. Cape Cook, Vancouver Island, was also named after the great navigator, by Captain George H. Richards, in 1860.

Cook’s Mills. An engagement in the War of 1812-1814. October 13th, 1814, Izard, the American general, having moved across the Niagara near Black Rock, with 6,000 men, marched down stream toward Chippewa. On the 19th he sent a brigade to Cook’s Mills, about twelve miles inland from Chippewa, where there was a heavy skirmish in which the Glengarries on the British side did good work. The following day Izard fell back, blew up the fortifications at Fort Erie, and retreated to his own side of the river. Bib.: Lucas, Canadian War of 1812.

Coote’s Paradise. See Hamilton.

Copper Mines. Prehistoric workings have been found on Isle Royale and on both the south and north shores of Lake Superior, as well as thousands of copper artifacts, implements and ornaments of Indian workmanship. Brûlé, Radisson, and other early travellers, mention copper mines and copper ornaments and nuggets. Father Allouez made an investigation in 1665 and reported a number of large deposits on the south shore of Lake Superior. La Tourette, brother of Du Lhut, brought a large nugget from the west in 1687. Lahontan, Le Sueur, and others reported on the subject. La Ronde, in 1734, with St. Pierre, began to develop the Superior mines, using a little bark they had built at Sault Ste. Marie for transportation. On the banks of Ontonagon river he found the great copper mass which many years later was taken to Washington and now rests in the Smithsonian Institute. Miners were brought out and the venture prospered for a time, but trouble with the Indians brought it to an untimely end. In 1768 Alexander Henry with several associates tried to revive the industry, but disaster followed and the attempt was abandoned. See Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin. Also Hearne’s Journey for the attempt to mine copper on the Arctic coast.

Coppermine River. Rises in a small lake, a little west of long. 110° and south of lat. 66°, and after a course of 525 miles flows into Coronation Gulf, on the Arctic coast of Canada. It was discovered by Samuel Hearne, 1771; and subsequently visited by Sir John Franklin, 1821; Sir John Richardson, 1848; and later travellers. See Hearne. Bib.: Hearne, Journey from Prince of Wales Fort to the Frozen Ocean; Franklin, Journey to the Polar Sea; Richardson, Arctic Searching Expedition; Atlas of Canada.

Coppins, Frederick George. Corporal, 8th Battalion, C. E. F. Victoria Cross. During an attack at Beaufort Wood, August 9th, 1918, his platoon came unexpectedly under fire of numerous machine-guns, and as it was impossible either to advance or retire and there was no cover, they must be annihilated unless the guns could be silenced immediately. Calling four men to follow him, he rushed forward in the face of intense machine-gun fire. His comrades were killed and he was wounded. Nevertheless he reached the hostile machine-guns, and killed or captured the crews single-handed.

Copyright. The first granted in Canada was in 1841, for Alexander Davidson’s Canadian Spelling Book; the second, for Bridges’ Boys’ Own Book; and the third for Richardson’s War of 1812. These were under the provisions of the Imperial Copyright Act. The first Canadian copyright law was enacted in 1850. The Act of 1875 made it a condition for obtaining copyright in Canada that the work should be printed and published or reprinted and republished in Canada contemporaneously or subsequently to the publication or production elsewhere. Further legislation amended the law in various ways. In 1921 an amending Act was passed designed to bring the Canadian law into harmony with the Berne Convention. Amended 1924.

Coquart, Claude Godefroy (1706-1765). Jesuit missionary. Came to Canada, 1738. Spent three years at Quebec. Accompanied La Vérendrye on his western journey in 1741, but got no farther than Michilimackinac, where he was, 1741-1744. His letter, quoted by Margry, in Découvertes et établissements des Français dans l’ouest, throws an interesting light on La Vérendrye’s explorations. Wintered at Fort la Reine, 1744-1745. In charge of Saguenay mission, 1746-1751. For a short time in Acadia after the British conquest. Died in Chicoutimi. Bib.: Wis. His. Coll., xvii and xviii.

Corn Laws. Certain Acts of the British Parliament relating to the exportation and importation of grain and particularly wheat. The Act of 1773 encouraged the importation of foreign wheat. It was repealed in 1791 and importation discouraged. Other legislation followed in 1815 and 1828. In 1836 an agitation began for the repeal of the Corn Laws, and the Anti-Corn League was organized, which eventually led to the adoption of free trade. In 1843 a substantial preference was granted to Canadian wheat in the English market. This included flour and stimulated milling in Canada. The Act of 1846 repealed the Corn Laws and wiped out the preference. Elgin’s view was that Canada was injured not so much by the adoption of free trade as by her dependence on Imperial tariff legislation. Bib.: Lewis, George Brown.

Cornwall Canal. Connects the navigable stretch of the St. Lawrence at Dickinson’s Landing with Cornwall, around the Long Sault Rapids. It is eleven and one-quarter miles long with six locks. From the head of the Soulanges Canal there is a stretch of thirty-one miles of navigable water to the Long Sault rapids. Work commenced on the canal in 1834. The Rebellion of 1837-1838 interfered with its completion, which did not take place until 1843. It then had a depth of nine feet of water. Subsequently enlarged and deepened to fourteen feet in 1902. Bib.: Holgate, The Upper St. Lawrence River; Keefer, Canals of Canada; Rhéaume, Origin of Cornwall and Williamsburg Canals (Women’s Can. Hist. Soc. of Ottawa Trans.).

Cornwallis, Charles, first Marquis (1738-1805). Served in American Revolutionary War; won victory at Camden over Gates, 1780, and in 1781 defeated Greene at Guildford. In 1781 hemmed in at Yorktown between the American army and the French fleet, and forced to surrender. Governor-general and commander-in-chief of Bengal, 1786-1893. Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 1798; British plenipotentiary to negotiate peace of Amiens, 1801. Five years later again returned to India as governor-general, and died at Ghazeepore. Bib.: Cornwallis, Despatches; Kaye, Lives of Indian Officers; Dict. Nat. Biog.; Johnston, Yorktown Campaign; Cyc. Am. Biog.

Cornwallis, Edward. Born, 1712. Member of the British House of Commons for Eyre, 1749. Appointed governor of Nova Scotia, 1749. Sailed from England with 2,576 emigrants and on July 2nd, 1749, reached the harbour of Chebucto, the site of the present city of Halifax. His administration marked by severe measures against the discontented Acadians. Returned to England, 1752. Elected to the House of Commons for Westminster, 1753; major-general, 1759; subsequently governor of Gibraltar. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia; Murdoch, History of Nova Scotia; Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia, ed. by Akins.

Cornwallis Island. Between North Devon and Bathurst Islands in the Arctic Archipelago. Named by Parry in 1819 after Admiral Sir William Cornwallis (1744-1819), under whom he had served in the Channel fleet. Bib.: White, Place Names in Northern Canada.

Corvée. An ancient French custom, introduced into New France, by which men were compelled to work without pay on roads and other public works. Used to some extent after the cession of Canada, in the transport of provisions for the upper posts, improving the roads, etc., but with this important difference that the forced labour was paid for.

Cosmos, Amor de. Born in Windsor, N. S. Editor of British Colonist, founded 1858 in Victoria. He was a bitter opponent of Sir James Douglas. Advocated the entry of British Columbia into the Dominion. Premier of British Columbia, 1872-1874. He had been born with a somewhat prosaic name, Smith, to which his parents had added another equally uninspiring. Dissatisfied with both, he had an Act put through the Canadian Parliament changing his names to the rather singular combination given above. Bib.: Begg, History of British Columbia.

Costigan, John (1835-1916). Born at St. Nicholas, Quebec. Represented Victoria county, New Brunswick, in the local Legislature, 1861-1866. Sat for the same county in the House of Commons, 1867-1904. Minister of inland revenue, 1882-1892; secretary of state, 1892-1894; minister of marine and fisheries, 1894-1896. Called to the Senate, 1907. He was a strong believer in Home Rule for Ireland, and on several occasions brought resolutions before the Canadian House of Commons relating thereto. Favoured disallowance of the New Brunswick law abolishing separate schools. A delegate to the Irish National Convention in Dublin in 1896. Bib.: Morgan, Canadian Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Coulon de Villiers, Louis (1710-1757). Stationed at Fort St. Joseph, 1729-1731; and at Green Bay, 1733. Accompanied Longueuil in the Chickasaw expedition of 1739. In Acadia, 1746. With Céloron on the Ohio, 1749. Stationed at Fort Miami, 1750-1753, and led a detachment of troops to Fort Duquesne in 1754. George Washington surrendered to him at Fort Necessity. Commanded at Niagara, 1755, and was present at the capture of Oswego, 1756. Also at Fort William Henry. Awarded the Cross of St. Louis. Died at Quebec. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii.

Council. See Legislative Council; Executive Council; Sovereign Council.

Council of Assiniboia. Appointed by the Hudson’s Bay Company for the government of the colonists in their territory. The first meeting was held February 12th, 1835, with Sir George Simpson as president. Bishop Taché, Alexander Christie, Alexander Ross, Cuthbert Grant, and ten others formed the Council. Among other useful work, it organized a volunteer corps for defensive and police purposes; divided the settlements into four districts with a magistrate for each; and made provision for a public building. Bib.: Begg, History of the North-West; Bryce, Manitoba; Hargrave, Red River; Ross, Red River Settlement.

Counties of New Brunswick. Albert, in honour of the Prince Consort; Carleton, after Thomas Carleton, first lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick; Charlotte, after Queen Charlotte, consort of George III; Gloucester, probably after Mary, Duchess of Gloucester, daughter of George III; Kent, in memory of the Duke of Kent, father of Queen Victoria; Kings, as an expression of loyalty to the king, George III; Madawaska, from the Maliseet Med-a-wes-kaka, said by Rand to mean “where one river enters another;” Northumberland, after the county of that name in England; Queens, as an expression of loyalty; Restigouche, from the Micmac Lust-a-gooch, meaning uncertain, suggested versions are “five-fingered river,” “river branching like the hand,” “big river,” “broad river”; Saint John, from the river which was named by De Monts and Champlain because they reached it on the day of St. John the Baptist; Sunbury, possibly after a village near London; Victoria, in honour of Queen Victoria; Westmorland, after the English county; York, after the Duke of York, eldest son of George III. Bib.: Ganong, Place Nomenclature of New Brunswick (R. S. C., 1896).

Counties of Nova Scotia. Annapolis, in honour of Queen Anne; Antigonish, according to Dr. Rand, from the Micmac word meaning “where branches are torn off the trees by bears getting beech-nuts;” Cape Breton, probably from the Breton fishermen who frequented its shores in the early days; Colchester, after the English town of that name; Cumberland, in honour of the Duke of Cumberland, son of George II; Digby, in honour of Admiral Robert Digby; Guysborough, after Sir Guy Carleton; Halifax, after the Earl of Halifax; Hants, an abbreviation of the name of the English county Hampshire; Inverness, probably after the Scotch county; Kings, as an expression of loyalty to the monarchy; Lunenburg, after Luneburg in Hanover; Pictou, from a Micmac word said to mean “big harbour;” Queens, as an expression of loyalty; Richmond, named for the Duke of Richmond; Shelburne, in honour of the Earl of Shelburne; Victoria, in honour of the queen; Yarmouth, probably after the Earl of Yarmouth. Bib.: Place Names of Nova Scotia.

Counties of Ontario. Stormont, named after David Murray, seventh Viscount Stormont (1727-1796); Dundas, after Henry Dundas, Viscount Melville (1741-1811); Grenville, after William Wyndham Grenville (1759-1834); Leeds, after Francis Godolphin Osborne, fifth Duke of Leeds; Prescott, after Major-General Robert Prescott (1725-1816); Russell, after Peter Russell, who administered the government of Upper Canada, 1796-1799; Carleton, after Sir Guy Carleton, Lord Dorchester (1724-1808); Lanark, after the town of Lanark, Scotland; Renfrew, after Renfrewshire, Scotland; Frontenac, after Count de Frontenac (1620-1698); Addington, after Henry Addington, Viscount Sidmouth (1755-1844); Lennox, after Charles Lennox, third Duke of Richmond (1735-1806); Prince Edward, after Prince Edward Augustus fourth son of George III and father of Queen Victoria (1767-1820); Hastings, after Francis Rawdon Hastings (1724-1826); Northumberland, after the English county of that name; Peterborough, after the town of Peterborough in that county, the town being named after Colonel Peter Robinson, brother of Sir John Beverley Robinson; Durham, after the county of the same name in England; Victoria, after Queen Victoria; Ontario, after Lake Ontario; York, after the English county of Yorkshire; Simcoe, after John Graves Simcoe; Peel, after Sir Robert Peel (1788-1850); Dufferin, after the governor-general of that name; Halton, after Major William Halton, secretary to Lieutenant-Governor Gore; Wellington, after the Duke of Wellington (1769-1851); Waterloo, after the famous battle; Wentworth, after Sir John Wentworth, governor of Nova Scotia; Lincoln, after Lincolnshire, England; Welland, name of Chippawa creek changed to Welland river, after stream of that name in Lincolnshire, and name of county followed; Haldimand, after Sir Frederick Haldimand (1718-1791); Brant, after Joseph Brant (1742-1807); Norfolk, after the English county of that name; Oxford, after the English city; Elgin, after the Earl of Elgin, governor-general; Middlesex, after the English county; Kent, after the English county; Lambton, after John George Lambton, Earl of Durham (1792-1840); Essex, after the English county; Perth, after the Ontario town of Perth, which in turn was named after Perth, Scotland; Huron, after Lake Huron; Bruce, after James Bruce, Earl of Elgin; Grey, after Earl Grey (1764-1845); Haliburton, after Thomas Chandler Haliburton (1796-1865); Muskoka, after a chief of the Chippawa tribe; Parry Sound, name given originally by Captain Bayfield to the sound, then to the town, then to the county, after Parry Sound in the Arctic, which got its name from Sir William Edward Parry, the Arctic explorer; Nipissing, from Lake Nipissing; Manitoulin, a corruption of an Indian word for Great Spirit. Bib.: Gardiner, Nothing but Names.

Counties of Prince Edward Island. The three counties of Kings, Queens and Prince were obviously named in honour of the royal family. It will be noted that each of the three maritime provinces has a Kings county and a Queens county. The dominating element in the three colonies at the time these counties were named was the United Empire Loyalist, and in view of what had taken place in the other colonies on the Atlantic seaboard, it was an obvious and natural gesture of loyalty to so name these new settlements in the colonies that remained British.

Counties of Quebec. Abitibi, from the Algonkin band of Indians; Argenteuil, from the seigniory which was named after the French town of that name; Arthabaska, from an Indian word meaning “place where there are reeds;” Bagot, after Sir Charles Bagot (1741-1843); Beauce, after a district of the same name in France; Beauharnois, after the seigniory granted to the Marquis Charles de Beauharnois in 1729; Bellechasse, after the islands of the same name, called by Champlain “Isles de Chasse;” and later known as “Islets de Bellechasse;” Berthier, after the seigniory of that name, granted to Alexandre Berthier in 1672; Bonaventure, after the island of that name, origin uncertain but probably given by Champlain; Brome, after a village in Suffolk, England; Chambly, after the seigniory of that name, granted to Jacques de Chambly in 1672; Champlain, after Samuel Champlain; Charlevoix, after the historian, Charlevoix; Chateauguay, after the seigniory granted to Charles Le Moyne in 1673, and named by him after Châteauguay in France; Chicoutimi, an Indian name signifying “farther on it is still deep;” Compton, probably after the Marquess Townshend (1753-1811), one of whose titles was Lord Compton; Deux-Montagnes, after the seigniory of that name, which was called after two conspicuous mountains therein; Dorchester, after Lord Dorchester; Drummond, after Sir George Drummond (1772-1854); Frontenac, after Count de Frontenac; Gaspé, the name goes back to 1542, and is said to be derived from a Micmac name signifying end or extremity; Hochelaga, after the ancient Indian town on the island of Montreal; Hull, after the English city of that name; Huntingdon, after the English county; Iberville, after the seigniory granted to Pierre Le Moyne Sieur de Iberville; Iles-de-la-Madeleine, after Madeleine Fontaine, wife of François Doublet, to whom they were granted in 1663; Jacques-Cartier, after the explorer; Joliette, after the seigniory granted to Louis Joliet in 1697; Kamouraska, Indian name meaning “where there are rushes on the other side of the river;” Labelle, after Rev. F. X. A. Labelle; Lac-St.-Jean, after St. John the Baptist; Laprairie, after the seigniory so named because much of it was prairie land; L’Assomption, after the Feast of the Assumption; Laval, after Bishop Laval; Lévis, after General Lévis, second in command to Montcalm; L’Islet, after the seigniory granted in 1677 to Geneviéve Couillard, named after a small rocky island near the present village; Lotbinière, after the seigniory granted to Louis-Theandre Chartier de Lotbinière in 1672; Maskinongé, from an Indian name meaning “big pike;” Matane, from an Indian name meaning “beaver pond;” Matapédia, from a Micmac name meaning “river that breaks up into branches;” Mégantic, from an Abnaki name meaning “where they preserve fish;” Missisquoi, from an Abnaki word meaning “the place where flint is found;” Montcalm, after the Marquis de Montcalm; Montmagny, after the governor of that name; Montmorency, after the Due de Montmorency; Napierville, after General Napier Christie Burton; Nicolet, after Jean Nicolet, the explorer; Papineau, after Denis Papineau; Pontiac, after the celebrated Indian chief; Portneuf, probably derived from the French town of that name; Quebec, from an Indian word meaning “strait,” or “narrows;” Richelieu, after Cardinal Richelieu; Richmond, after the Duke of Richmond (1764-1819); Rimouski, from a Micmac name meaning “haunt of dogs;” Rouville, from the seigniory granted to Jean Baptiste Hartel Sieur de Rouville, 1694; Saguenay, from an Indian name meaning “water that flows out;” Shefford, after Shefford, England; Sherbrooke, after Sir John Coape Sherbrooke (1764-1830); Soulanges, after the seigniory granted Pierre Jacques de Joybert de Soulanges, in 1702; Stanstead, after an English village of that name; St. Hyacinthe, after the seigniory acquired by Hyacinthe Simon Delorme in 1753; St. Jean, after the festival of St. John the Baptist; St. Maurice, after Maurice Poulin Sieur de la Fontaine; Témiscamingue, from an Indian name meaning “at the place of the deep dry water;” Témiscouata, from an Indian name meaning “deep lake forming the shores of a river;” Terrebonne, from the seigniory granted to Daulier des Landes, who is said to have named it on account of the fertility of the soil; Vaudreuil, after the Marquis de Vaudreuil; Verchéres, after the seigniory granted to François Jared de Verchéres in 1672; Wolfe, after General Wolfe; Yamaska, from an Indian name meaning “where there is grass at the bottom of the water.” Bib.: White, Place Names in Quebec.

Courcelles, Daniel de Rémy, Sieur de. Governor of Canada, 1665-1672. His tenure of office marked by an unsuccessful expedition against the Iroquois, and a long and acrimonious dispute with Laval and the Jesuits. Described by LeSueur as a judicious and capable administrator. The Marquis de Tracy was viceroy over all the French possessions in America during a portion of the governorship of De Courcelles; and Talon was twice intendant of New France during the same period. Bib.: Douglas, Old France in the New World; Parkman, Old Régime; Sulte, Régiment de Carignan (R. S. C., 1902).

Coureurs de bois. Created in the early days of New France by the illiberal policy of the trading companies. Men, unable to earn a living in the settlements, were driven out into the wilderness to trade with the Indians. Gradually this class increased in numbers, adventurous young men being attracted by the freedom from control and the quick profits of traffic with the Indians. The drain on the colony and the demoralization in its life and morals became so serious that determined efforts were made to end the practice, but without success, though the penalty was death. These men, half-white half-Indian by nature, became the backbone of the fur trade, not only in the French period but also after Canada had become British. Hardy, fearless, cheerful, improvident, they added strength and picturesqueness to the fur trading ventures of the North West Company. Bib.: See General Index, R. S. C.; Bancroft, History of the North-West Coast; Parkman, Old Régime; Ross Cox, Adventures on the Columbia; Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin; Munro, The Coureurs-de-bois (Proc. Mass. Hist. Soc., 1923-1924).

Courts of Justice. The Sovereign Council in New France exercised judicial powers, giving judgments in both civil and criminal cases, according to the royal ordinances and the Coutume de Paris. The Council had the power to establish subordinate courts throughout the colony. In the early days of the British régime, the courts of judicature were established by the governor, who also appointed the judges. In course of time courts were established, judges appointed, and laws passed, by the Legislature or the Cabinet. In 1721 a court of judicature was established at Annapolis, Nova Scotia. The Supreme Court of Canada was established in 1875, and held its first sitting in June, 1876.

Couture, Guillaume. Born in Normandy, 1608. Came to Canada, 1640. Two years later, on the way to the Huron country with Father Jogues (q.v.), captured by the Iroquois, and carried off to their villages, where they were tortured. Couture escaped a worse fate by being adopted into an Iroquois family. In 1661 accompanied Father Dablon (q.v.) on an expedition towards Hudson Bay. Threatened by an Iroquois war party, however, they got no farther than Lake Necouba, and retreated down the Saguenay to Tadoussac. Bib.: Parkman, Old Régime.

Cox, Ross. Went to Astoria on the Beaver in 1811-1812 as an employee of the Pacific Fur Company. When Astoria was transferred to the North West Company, joined that organization. Spent five years on the Columbia, and returned to the East overland. His narrative formed one of the principal sources of Irving’s Astoria, and is a valuable account of the fur trade on the Pacific coast and the character of the men engaged in it. Bib.: Adventures on the Columbia River. For biog., see Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Craig, Sir James (1748-1812). Distinguished himself at Lexington and Bunker Hill, in American Revolutionary War. Appointed governor of Jersey, 1793; and governor of the Cape, 1795. Sent to India two years later; and in 1807 governor-general of Canada. He distrusted the French Canadians and they in turn cordially disliked him. Suppressed French newspapers that criticized his policy. Recommended confiscation of the estates of the Sulpicians. Strongly favoured the union of Upper and Lower Canada. In 1809, his views and those of the Assembly being hopelessly at variance, he dissolved the House, and again the following year. Suffering from an incurable disease, he resigned in 1811 and returned to England. He was honest and courageous but, as Bourinot pointed out, he was “incapable of understanding colonial conditions and aspirations, ignorant of the principles and working of representative institutions, and too ready to apply arbitrary methods to the administration of civil affairs.” Bib.: Rattray, The Scot in British North America; Dict. Eng. Hist.; Dict. Nat. Biog.; Morgan, Cel. Can.; Christie, History of Lower Canada; Edgar, General Brock; DeCelles, Papineau; Cruikshank, Administration of Sir James Craig (R. S. C., 1908).

Cramahé, Hector Theophilus. A Swiss by birth but an officer in the British army. Member of the Executive Council in 1764 under Murray, who sent him to England to explain the difficulties in the way of applying British civil law to the conditions in Quebec. He had been Murray’s secretary. Lieutenant-governor under Carleton, and acted as administrator during the governor’s absence in England, 1770-1774, when the Quebec Act was under consideration. Arnold, in the invasion of 1775, sent him a summons to surrender Quebec, which Cramahé refused to consider. He distrusted the loyalty of the French militia. Had very friendly relations with Haldimand. Made governor of Detroit, 1785. Apparently died about 1788. Bib.: Kingsford, History of Canada; Bradley, Lord Dorchester.

Crane, William. Son of Jonathan, a United Empire Loyalist, who settled in New Brunswick, and became a member of the Legislature and Speaker. William was sent as a delegate to England to present the grievances of the New Brunswick Assembly in 1836, and again the following year. Appointed to the Executive Council, 1843, and resigned the same year. Hannay, Wilmot, Tilley.

Crawford, John Willoughby (1817-1875). Sat in the Legislative Assembly for East Toronto, 1861-1863; represented South Leeds in the House of Commons, 1867-1873; lieutenant-governor of Ontario, 1873-1875. Died at Government House, Toronto. Bib.: Read, Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada.

Crawley, Edmund Albern (1799-1880). Graduated from King’s College, Windsor; studied law under James W. Johnstone, and called to the bar, 1882. One of the leaders of the Baptist Church in Nova Scotia; entered the ministry; and became the principal founder of Acadia College. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Hill, Forty Years with the Baptist Ministers and Churches of the Maritime Provinces of Canada.

Cree Indians. An important Algonquian tribe, formerly ranging throughout what are now the provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan, and north-eastwards to Hudson Bay. First mentioned in Jesuit Relations, 1640, 1661, and 1667, and in the early journals of the Hudson’s Bay Company. They formed an alliance with the Assiniboines, formerly of Siouan stock, and carried their raids against hostile tribes westwards to the Rocky Mountains, and north to the Mackenzie River. In 1776 they numbered about 15,000, but were reduced by smallpox in 1786, and again in 1838. By the end of the nineteenth century they had again regained their former numbers. Bib.: Hodge, Handbook of American Indians; Harmon, Journal; Mackenzie, Voyages.

Creighton, John (1794-1878). Born in Nova Scotia. Called to the bar, 1816, and created Q. C. by royal warrant, 1845. Sat in the Legislative Assembly of Nova Scotia, 1830-1850. Called to the Legislative Council, 1859, and elected Speaker, 1875. Campbell, History of Nova Scotia.

Crémazie, Octave (1827-1879). His life a peculiarly sad one. Having made a failure of his business as a bookseller in Quebec, went to France, and died there in poverty. One of the founders of the Institut Canadien of Quebec; and contributed for some years to the Soirées Canadiennes and other periodicals. His poetical works published, 1882, under the patronage of the Institut Canadien, with an introduction by Abbé Casgrain. Bib.: Œuvres Complètes, Montreal, 1882. For biog., see Casgrain, Biog.; Gagnon, Quelques Notes sur O. Crémazie in Revue Canadienne, vol. 49; also articles in same review by Abbé Casgrain (vol. 31); and by Abbé Degagné (vol. 30).

Crespeuil, Francis de (1638-1702). Jesuit missionary. Born at Arras, France. Came to Quebec, 1670, and was assigned to the Tadoussac mission. For twenty-eight years he laboured among the Montagnais and other tribes of the Saguenay and lower St. Lawrence. Bib.: Campbell, Pioneer Priests.

Croak, John Bernard. Private, 13th Battalion, C. E. F. Victoria Cross. On August 8th, 1918, near Amiens, he captured single-handed an enemy machine-gun nest and took the crew prisoners. Shortly afterwards he was severely wounded, but nevertheless dashed forward alone against a very strong point containing several machine-guns. The remainder of his platoon followed, and they captured three machine guns and bayoneted or captured the entire garrison. He was again severely wounded, and died of his wounds.

Croft, Henry Holmes. Born in London, England. Came to Canada in 1842, having been appointed, on the recommendation of Michael Faraday, to the chair of chemistry in King’s College, Toronto, where he remained until 1879. In 1849 he became vice-chancellor, and did much to transform this local college into a great national university. His researches also added largely to the advancement of agricultural chemistry in Canada. Died in Texas. Bib.: Gardiner, Nothing but Names.

Crooks, Adam (1827-1885). Son of James Crooks; born at West Flamboro, Ontario. Educated at Upper Canada College and the University of Toronto. Called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1851. Contested West Toronto for the Assembly, 1867, but defeated; elected, 1871; defeated in East Toronto, 1875, but shortly afterwards elected for South Oxford. Attorney-general, 1871-1872; provincial treasurer, 1872-1877, to which was added in 1876 the portfolio of education; minister of education, 1877-1883. Retired on account of ill health. Died in Hartford, Conn. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

Crooks, James (1778-1860). Born in Scotland. Came to Canada, 1794, and settled at Niagara. Engaged in mercantile life. Commanded a company of militia during the War of 1812-1814. Shortly after the close of the war removed to West Flamboro. Helped in the suppression of the Rebellion of 1837. For twenty-five years a member of the Legislative Councils of Upper Canada and Canada. Died in West Flamboro. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years.

Crooks, Ramsay (1787-1859). Born at Greenock, Scotland. Came to America with his family and settled on the Canadian side of the Niagara river. Entered the service of the North West Company. In 1807 formed a fur trading partnership at St. Louis with Robert McClellan. In 1811 joined the Pacific Fur Company, and was a member of the overland expedition to Astoria. Reached Astoria May, 1812, and returning arrived at St. Louis April, 1813. He remained in Astor’s employ until 1817, when he became a partner of the American Fur Company, and in 1834 president. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xix.

Crosby, Thomas (1840-1914). As a young man went out from Ontario to the Pacific coast, where for a time he conducted an Indian school at Nanaimo, was sent on a missionary tour among the tribes, taught himself the Indian language, built the first church in the Chilliwack valley, and established missions in the north at Port Simpson, on the Skeena river, on Queen Charlotte Islands, and at various points up the coast. After forty-five years of missionary work he was stricken with paralysis and retired to Vancouver, where he died. Bib.: Maclean, Vanguards of Canada.

Crown Point. West side of Lake Champlain. Fort Frédéric was built there in 1731; rebuilt, 1734; and strengthened, 1742. It was blown up by Bourlamaque, 1759, to prevent its falling into the hands of the British; and the same year Amherst built a fort about two hundred yards west of the site of Fort Frédéric. This fort was captured, 1775, by Ethan Allen’s men; recaptured by Carleton the following year. Under the terms of the treaty of Paris, 1783, Crown Point became American territory. The international boundary crosses the head of Lake Champlain, some distance north of Crown Point. See Arnold; Allen; Abercromby; Montgomery. Bib.: Crockett, History of Lake Champlain; Smith, Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony; Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe.

Crow’s Nest Pass. Discovered in the later sixties by a trapper, Michael Phillips, formerly in the employ of the Hudson’s Bay Company. The pass took its name from Crow’s Nest Mountain, which is named Loge des Corbeaux on one of the maps accompanying Palliser’s Report, 1859. The original Cree name, of which these are translations, is Kah-ka-ioo-wut-tshis-tun. The pass was used for many years by the Mounted Police, who made a trail through it from the plains to British Columbia. Toward the end of the last century the Canadian Pacific Railway built a branch line through the pass. Bib.: Dawson, Crow’s Nest Pass (Geol. Survey, 1885); McTavish, The Climb of Crow’s Nest Mountain, in Canadian Alpine Journal, 1907.

Crysler’s Farm. Battle in War of 1812-1814, fought November 11th, 1813. The scene of the fight was near the head of the Long Sault Rapids, on the St. Lawrence. Morrison commanded the British troops, about 800 men, and Boyd the Americans, numbering 1,800, increased during the fight to 2,400. The Americans were driven off the field. Morrison captured 100 men and a gun. The American loss was 300 men; and the British, 200 men. See also War of 1812. Bib.: Lucas, Canadian War of 1812; Kingsford, History of Canada.

Cumberland House. Hudson’s Bay Company post. On Sturgeon Lake, north side of Saskatchewan river. Built by Samuel Hearne in 1774. Fur traders from Montreal, who afterwards became associated in the North West Company, had built a small establishment on the lake in 1772. The canoe route from the Saskatchewan to the Churchill by way of Frog Portage passed through Sturgeon Lake.

Cunard, Sir Samuel (1787-1865). Born in Halifax. His practical training fitted him for the important rôle he was to fill in the evolution of ocean shipping. Watched closely the early attempts to cross the Atlantic by steam, and when in 1838 the British government invited tenders for carrying the mails between Liverpool, Halifax, and Boston, immediately sailed for England and laid before the Admiralty his carefully-matured plans for a line of steamships. Joseph Howe and Thomas Chandler Haliburton were associated with him in the initiation of this momentous idea. Succeeded in enlisting the support of several big shipping firms in England, and had no difficulty in securing the contract. So originated the Cunard company, which from an initial fleet of four vessels of 1200 tons each and 440 horse-power has grown to its present gigantic proportions. Was one of the owners of the Royal William (q.v.). Made a baronet, 1859. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Johnson, First Things in Canada, under Steam Communication.

Cuoq, Jean-André (1821-1901). Entered the Sulpician order in 1843, and came to Canada two years later. Devoted his life to a minute study of the languages of the Algonquian and Iroquoian tribes, and became one of the leading authorities on the subject. A Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. Bib.: Works: Jugement Erroné de M. Ernest Renan sur Quelques Langues Sauvages de l’Amérique; Livre des Sept Nations; Études Philologiques sur Quelques Langues Sauvages de l’Amérique; Lexique de la Langue Iroquoise; Lexique de la Langue Algonquine, Anote-Kekon. For biog., see Trans. R. S. C., 1902, I, 127-128; Morgan, Can. Men.

Currency. During the French period money was at first very scarce. When the troops were sent out it became more abundant, the officers spending freely and paying in cash. The middle of the seventeenth century money was worth one-fourth more in Canada than in France, and two currencies became recognized, the Canadian franc and the livre tournois or French franc. Seventeen million livres of French paper money was in circulation after the conquest, and was not redeemed until 1768. The British authorities passed an ordinance in 1764 by which the French Louis d’or and crown were kept in circulation. Montgomery tried to use congress paper money in Canada in 1776, with very indifferent success. The farmers and merchants preferred specie. First step for a revision of the currency was taken, 1795, when an Act was passed fixing standard of values. It appears that about this time there were in circulation in Upper Canada such coins as the Johannes and the Moidora of Portugal, and the Spanish doubloon. The penalty for counterfeiting was death. Simcoe found himself embarrassed by the lack of an adequate currency. He suggested a form of paper money, but the scheme did not commend itself to the Home government. Brock arranged with some of the principal merchants in 1812 to issue a special paper currency, which was afterwards redeemed. So-called “army bills” were issued and used between 1812 and 1820. The LaFontaine-Baldwin government introduced the decimal system in 1850. In 1871 an Act was passed by the Dominion Parliament establishing a uniform currency. See Banking; Card Money. Bib.: Johnson, First Things in Canada; Weir, Sixty Years in Canada.

Currie, Sir Arthur William (1875-). Born in Ontario, he went west, taught school in British Columbia, and later was engaged in insurance and real estate. Began his military career in 1897 as a gunner in the 5th Regiment. Canadian Garrison Artillery. Received his commission, 1900, and rose to command of the regiment, 1909. Went overseas in 1914 in command of an infantry brigade. Promoted colonel, 1915, brigadier-general the same year. Commanded his brigade through the battles of Ypres, Festubert, Givenchy. Succeeded to the command of the first Canadian division, 1915; and to that of the Canadian corps, 1917. Promoted major-general, lieutenant-general, and general. Knighted, 1918. On his return to Canada became inspector military forces of Canada. Principal of McGill University, 1920.

Curry, Thomas. One of the first fur traders from Montreal to reach the Saskatchewan, about 1771. Preceded by James Finlay (q.v.). Alexander Mackenzie, in his General History of the Fur Trade, says that Curry with four canoes made his way to the Saskatchewan, and brought back such a rich cargo of furs that he was satisfied never to return to the Indian countries. Cocking (q.v.) of the Hudson’s Bay Company mentions Curry (1772) and says that he “intercepted great part of the York Fort trade this year.” Bib.: Mackenzie, General History of the Fur Trade, in his Voyages to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans; Burpee, Hendry’s Journal (R. S. C., 1907); Cocking’s Journal (R. S. C., 1908).

Customs. In 1793 an arrangement was made between Upper and Lower Canada as to the division of the revenue derived from customs. As late as 1836 the customs revenue was still collected in New Brunswick by Imperial officials. This applied also to other colonies. Control over customs revenue had been handed over to Lower Canada in 1831. Under the terms of the British North America Act the customs was one of the matters reserved to the Federal government. See also Canada Trade Act.

Cut Knife Hill. About thirty-eight miles west of Battleford. In the Rebellion of 1885, the Indian chief Poundmaker (q.v.) with a large force of Indians was encamped here. To prevent a junction between Poundmaker and Big Bear, Colonel Otter with 325 militia made a forced march and attacked the Indians at Cut Knife Hill. Poundmaker, a shrewd and resourceful leader, took full advantage of his superior position, and almost succeeded in enveloping the little column of whites. Otter managed to extract his men from the trap at the last moment, with the loss of a few men, and retreated to Battleford. The diversion had the effect of preventing the junction of Poundmaker and Big Bear, and discouraging the Indians. See also Riel Rebellion, 1885.

Cuthbert, James. Served in the navy as lieutenant of the flagship at Carthagena in 1721. Entered the 42nd Regiment on its formation. Served at the capture of Louisbourg and the siege of Quebec. Aide-de-camp to Murray. Appointed by Dorchester a member of the first Legislative Council. Captured by the Americans in the invasion of 1775 and sent in irons to Albany. They also burned his manor house.

Cuthbert, James Ross. Son of preceding. An intimate friend of Brock, he formed a volunteer company from the men of his seigniory of Berthier in 1807. Supported Papineau in his agitation on behalf of the French Canadians. He was a member of the Special Council of Lower Canada in 1839, and opposed the union of the Canadas. Bib.: Christie, History of Lower Canada.

Cuvillier, Augustin. Entered public life in 1815 as member for Huntington, which he represented almost continuously up to 1844. Speaker of Assembly, 1841-1844. Died, 1849. In 1828 he had been a delegate from the Assembly of Lower Canada to represent their grievances to the Imperial Government, but he had voted against Papineau’s Ninety-Two Resolutions. He was a man of moderate views. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.

Dablon, Claude (1619-1697). Born at Dieppe. Educated at Paris and La Flèche; joined Canadian mission, 1655; accompanied Chaumonot to Onondaga territory, where he stayed for three years, then returned to Quebec and remained till 1661, when sent on a mission to Cree tribes in district of Hudson Bay. In 1668 went with Marquette to Algonquian tribes of Lake Superior. One of the founders of the mission at Sault Ste. Marie. In 1770 named superior of Canadian missions and rector of College at Quebec, but did not reach the St. Lawrence till following year; held these positions until August, 1680, and from October 1686 to 1693. Edited the Relations of 1671 and 1672 and compiled others relating to 1673-1679. Died at Quebec. Bib.: Jesuit Relations, ed. by Thwaites; Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America.

Dalhousie, George Ramsay, ninth Earl of (1770-1838). A Scottish peer. Entered the army at an early age and saw service in various parts of the world. From 1812 to 1814 commanded the 7th division of the British army in France and Spain. Received the thanks of Parliament for his services at Waterloo. Raised to the peerage of the United Kingdom as Baron Ramsay. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia in 1816. In 1819 became governor-general and commander-in-chief of British North America. Served in this capacity for nine years. He founded the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, and was responsible for the very happy idea of the Wolfe and Montcalm monument at Quebec. Politically he was not so successful. He has been described as a “disciplinarian devoid of diplomacy.” His relations with the French majority in the Legislature, and particularly with Papineau, were far from sympathetic. In 1827 he refused to confirm the election of Papineau as Speaker, and dissolved the Legislature. A storm of public indignation followed, and petitions were sent to England protesting against the governor’s usurpation of authority. Dalhousie was recalled. Largely responsible for the founding of Bytown. From 1829 to 1832 commander-in-chief in the East Indies. Bib.: Kingsford, History of Canada; Rattray, The Scot in British North America; Dict. Eng. Hist.; Campbell, History of Nova Scotia.

Dalhousie University. Halifax. Founded by the Earl of Dalhousie, 1818. Corner-stone of original building laid in 1820. First endowment derived from Castine Fund, resulting from the occupation of Castine, Maine, during the War of 1812-1814. Act of Incorporation passed, 1821. First president elected and classes opened, 1838. University powers conferred 1841. College closed for some years owing to lack of funds for its support. Reorganized, 1863. In 1920 celebrated its centenary by launching a Million Dollar Endowment Fund. Two and a half millions subscribed, including $300,000 from Mrs. E. B. Eddy for Shirreff Hall, a dormitory for girls, to which $350,000 subsequently added; Carnegie and Rockefeller Foundations contributed $500,000 each towards the Medical School. William Dennis of Halifax gave $100,000 to endow a Chair of Government and Political Science. Dalhousie took an active part in the movement, initiated in 1922, for a union of the Maritime universities. The Carnegie Foundation offered to contribute two and a half millions toward the endowment of a Maritime university. Only Dalhousie and King’s had, up to 1925, united. Bib.: Hopkins, Canada, An Ency., vol. 3; MacMechan, The Life of a Little College.

Dallas, A. J. Born in Scotland. Engaged for some years in the China trade. Entered service of Hudson’s Bay Company; chief factor at Fort Victoria, Vancouver Island; succeeded Sir George Simpson as governor of Rupert’s Land, 1862. Married a daughter of Sir James Douglas (q.v.). Bib.: Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Dalmas, Anthony (1636-1693). Jesuit missionary. Born in Tours, he came to Canada in 1670, and spent several years in the “grim routine of hardship and dangers” of the Tadoussac missions. Joined Father Sylvie at Fort Albany, on James Bay, in 1691. The fort had been captured by Iberville in 1686, and was now in the hands of a small French garrison. Dalmas was murdered by the tool-maker of the garrison in the spring of 1693. Bib.: Campbell, Pioneer Priests; Laut, Conquest of the Great North-West.

Daly, Sir Dominick (1798-1868). Born in Ireland. Came to Canada, 1825; provincial secretary for Lower Canada, 1827-1840; member of the Special Council of Lower Canada, 1840-1841; provincial secretary of Canada, 1841-1848. His easy and affable personality made him popular with all classes. When the government resigned in 1863, he alone remained to defend Metcalfe, constituting an administration of one. Left Canada, and appointed by the Imperial government lieutenant-governor of Tobago, 1851-1854. Afterwards lieutenant-governor of Prince Edward Island, 1854-1859; and governor of South Australia, 1861-1868. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years; Taylor, Brit. Am.; Morgan, Cel. Can.; Davin, The Irishman in Canada.

Daly, John Corry Wilson (1796-1878). Born in Liverpool, England. For some time an assistant surgeon in the navy. Emigrated to the United States, and removed to Hamilton, 1826. Appointed surgeon to the Canada Company, 1827, and settled at Stratford, 1829. Succeeded John Galt (q.v.) as agent of the Canada Company, 1831, and took up his residence at Guelph. In the next year returned to Stratford, where he resided until his death. For many years agent of the Bank of Upper Canada at Stratford.

Daly, Sir Malachy Bowes (1836-1920). Son of Sir Dominick Daly; born in Quebec. Educated at St. Mary’s College, Oscott, England; studied law and called to the bar of Nova Scotia, 1864. Private secretary to various governors of Nova Scotia. Sat in House of Commons for Halifax, 1878-1887; lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1890-1900. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Daly, Thomas Mayne (1852-1911). His father, of the same Christian names, was a member of the old Canadian assembly, and also sat in the House of Commons. The son was born at Stratford, Ontario; studied law and called to the bar, 1876. Removed to Manitoba, 1881, and became the first mayor of Brandon. Represented Selkirk in the House of Commons, 1887-1896. Minister of the interior in the Thompson administration, 1892; resigned, 1896, and went to England and France on a special mission in connection with a reorganization of the Canadian immigration system. Later practised law in Rossland, British Columbia. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Dandurand, Raoul (1861-). Born in Montreal. Graduated from Laval; called to the bar, 1883; Q. C., 1897. Called to the Senate, 1898; Speaker, 1905-1909. Appointed a member of the King administration, 1921, and government leader in the Senate. Took an active part in the inter-parliamentary peace movement. One of the Canadian representatives to the Assembly of the League of Nations, 1924. Elected president of the Assembly, 1925. Bib.: Chambers, Can. Parl. Guide.

Daneau de Muy, Nicolas. Came to Canada, 1685; married Marguerite Boucher, grand-daughter of Pierre Boucher, in 1687; and after serving with distinction in King William’s War, 1689-1697, died on his way to Louisiana to assume the governorship. His son, Jacques-Pierre Daneau de Muy, born, 1695, commanded at River St. Joseph in 1733; served as captain in King George’s War, 1744-1748; was appointed commandant at Detroit, 1755; and died there in 1757. He is described as a “prudent, wise and sedate man, and a very exact officer.” Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xvii.

Daniel, Antoine (1600-1648). Son of Antoine Daniel, of Dieppe. Entered the Society of Jesus; came to Canada in 1633, and a missionary in Cape Breton that year. In 1634 accompanied Brébeuf to the Huron country, where they laid the beginnings of that ill-fated mission. In 1636 came to Quebec to open the Seminary, which, from very modest beginnings, has since developed into Laval University. Returned to the Huron mission, and in 1648 was murdered by the Iroquois. First of the Huron martyrs. Bib.: Parkman, Jesuits in North America; Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America.

Daniel, Charles. Son of Antoine Daniel, of Dieppe. Made a notable voyage to New France in 1629, of which he left a graphic narrative. Arriving at Cape Breton that year, with two armed vessels, found Lord Ochiltree, who had joined Sir William Alexander in his colonization schemes, building a fort near Louisbourg. Seized the colonists and carried them off to France. Was himself captured by Kirke. Bib.: Voyage à la Nouvelle France du Capitaine Charles Daniel. For biog., see Biggar, Early Trading Companies of New France; Parkman, Pioneers of France; Kirke, The First English Conquest of Canada.

Daulac. See Dollard des Ormeaux.

Daumont. See St. Lusson.

Dauphin Lake. In Manitoba, south of Lake Winnipegosis. Named after the Dauphin of France. Discovered by one of the sons of La Vérendrye in 1741, who built Fort Dauphin that year near the mouth of Mossy river, which discharges the waters of Lake Dauphin into Winnipegosis. J. B. Tyrrell thinks that the site of the fort is probably in the present town of Winnipegosis.

David, Claude (1621-1687). He was by profession a physician, and practised at Three Rivers and later at Cap-de-la-Madeleine. In 1660 he accompanied the expedition of Father René Ménard to the west. He was one of a party of traders who had determined to open up trade with the Ottawas on the south shore of Lake Superior. The Iroquois menace and other difficulties kept them at Chequamegon Bay for three years. Finally, in 1663, the Iroquois having suffered a notable defeat, the traders and their native allies made their way back to the St. Lawrence with a cargo of furs, and reports of the existence of copper on Lake Superior. Bib.: Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin.

David, Laurent Olivier (1840-). Educated at St. Thérèse College; studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1864. One of founders, and editor, of L’Opinion Publique, 1870. Represented Montreal East in Quebec Legislature, 1886-1890. Called to the Senate, 1903. Bib.: Works: Biographies et Portraits; Les Héros de Châteauguay; Les Patriotes de 1837-1838; Mes Contemporains; Les Deux Papineau; L’Union des Deux Canadas; Le Drapeau de Carillon; Laurier et Son Temps; Le Clerge Canadien: Sa Mission et Son Œuvre; Souvenirs et Biographies; Mélanges Historiques. For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Davidson, John. Commissioner of crown lands in Lower Canada. Appointed by Sydenham to same office after the union. Retired with Draper, and made collector of customs. Bib.: Shortt, Lord Sydenham.

Davies, Sir Louis Henry (1845-1924). Born in Prince Edward Island. Educated at Prince of Wales College; studied law and called to the bar of Prince Edward Island, 1866. Sat in the Assembly, 1872-1879; premier and attorney-general, 1876. Counsel for Great Britain before the International Fisheries Commission at Halifax, 1877. Elected to the House of Commons for Queen’s, 1882; minister of marine and fisheries in the Laurier administration, 1896; one of the joint high commissioners on behalf of Great Britain to settle differences between the United States and Canada, 1898; knighted, 1897; appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of Canada, 1902; became chief-justice, and a member of the Imperial Privy Council. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Davin, Nicholas Flood (1843-1901). Born in Ireland. Studied law and called to the English bar, 1868. Served as war correspondent during Franco-Prussian War. Came to Canada, 1872; joined staff of the Globe, and later, the Mail. Called to the Ontario bar, 1874. Established the Regina Leader, 1883. Represented West Assiniboia in Dominion Parliament, 1887-1900. A brilliant but somewhat erratic speaker. Bib.: Works: The Irishman in Canada; Eos, an Epic of the Dawn; Culture and Practical Power; Ireland and the Empire. For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men.

Davis, John. Born near Dartmouth, England. Made three voyages in search of a north-west passage. In 1585 he sailed to Greenland and across the strait that now bears his name to Baffin Land, discovering Cumberland Sound. The following year he continued his exploration of Baffin Land. In 1587 he explored Cumberland Sound and sailed down the coast past Frobisher Bay and across the entrance to what later became known as Hudson Strait to a point which he named Cape Chidley. In 1591 he sailed with Cavendish to the South Seas, and subsequently made journeys to the East Indies for the East Indian Company. On his return from one of these expeditions, he was killed by Japanese pirates off the coast of Malacca in 1605. Bib.: Markham, Voyages of John Davis.

Dawson, George Mercer (1849-1901). Son of Sir J. W. Dawson (q.v.). Studied geology and palæontology under Huxley, Ramsay and Etheridge at the Royal School of Mines, London. Geologist and botanist to North American Boundary Commission, 1873-1875. Appointed to staff of Geological Survey, 1875; assistant director, 1883; director, 1895. Carried out many important explorations in the West and added largely to what was known of the geology particularly of the Rocky Mountain region. One of the British commissioners in Bering Sea Arbitration, 1892. Bib.: For his numerous reports and papers on geological and allied subjects, see General Indexes to Geological Survey Reports, 1863-1884, and 1885-1906; and Bibliography of the Royal Society (R. S. C., 1894). For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men.

Dawson, Sir John William (1820-1899). Born at Pictou, Nova Scotia. Educated at Edinburgh University. Accompanied Sir Charles Lyell on his geological explorations in Nova Scotia. Appointed superintendent of education for Nova Scotia, 1850. Principal of McGill University, 1855-1893, and mainly instrumental in building up the institution from a small college to one of the first rank. Elected F. G. S., 1854, and F. R. S., 1862; knighted, 1884. First president of Royal Society of Canada. Author of many books and pamphlets on geology and palæontology. Bib.: Works: Acadian Geology; Story of the Earth and Man; Science and the Bible; Dawn of Life; Origin of the World; Fossil Men; Change of Life in Geological Times; Chain of Life; Egypt and Syria. For biog., see Dict. Nat. Biog.; Dent, Can. Por.; Taylor, Brit. Am.; Morgan, Can. Men.; Cyc. Am. Biog.; Dawson, Fifty Years of Work in Canada.

Dawson, Simon James. Born in Glengarry, Scotland, and came to Canada when a boy. Studied civil engineering, and was employed by the government in opening up the pine regions of the St. Maurice valley in 1851. Six years later he was given the important task of exploring the country from Lake Superior to Lake Winnipeg, on which he published a comprehensive report. In 1868 he began work on what was afterwards known as the Dawson Route, from Lake Superior to the Lake of the Woods, and in 1870 provided boats and voyageurs to transport Wolseley’s force over this route to the Red river. In 1873 he was a commissioner to conclude a treaty with the Chippewa Indians. Two years later he was elected to the Ontario Legislature for Algoma, and advocated a vigorous colonization roads policy. In 1878 he was elected to the House of Commons for Algoma, being re-elected in 1882 and 1886. Bib.: Gardiner, Nothing but Names.

Day, Charles Dewey (1806-1884). Born in Bennington, Vermont. Came with his parents to Canada, 1812. Called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1827; created Q. C., 1837. Assisted in the prosecution of the insurgents who had been arrested during the Rebellion of 1837-1838. Appointed solicitor-general and called to the Special Council, 1839. Summoned by Sydenham to the Executive Council, 1840, and subsequently elected to the Assembly for the county of Ottawa. Appointed judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1842; transferred to the Superior Court, 1849; resigned, 1862. Acted as commissioner for the codification of the civil laws of Quebec; as representative of Quebec on the Arbitration Commission appointed under the British North America Act to settle the claims of the provinces; and as chairman of the Royal Commission to investigate the charges against the Macdonald government in connection with the granting of the charter to build the Canadian Pacific Railway. Held the office of chancellor of McGill University from 1857 until his death. Died in England. Bib.: Taylor, Brit. Am.; Dent, Last Forty Years.

Dearborn, Henry (1751-1829). Served through the War of the Revolution; accompanied Arnold’s expedition to Canada. Secretary of war, 1801-1809; appointed major-general, 1812, and assigned to command of northern department in War of 1812; captured York, 1813, and Fort George, same year. Minister to Portugal, 1822-1824. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.

Dease, Peter Warren. In charge of New Caledonia for the Hudson’s Bay Company, succeeding William Connolly. Became a Chief Factor in 1828. In 1839 with Thomas Simpson explored the Arctic coast of Canada from the farthest west point reached by Franklin to the most easterly point reached by Elson in 1826, and filled the gap between Points Turnagain and Ogle. Also part of the southern coasts of Victoria Land and King William Land. Finally settled the question as to the existence of a water channel between these great Arctic islands and the mainland. Dease lake and Dease river, a branch of the Liard, in northern British Columbia, were named after him by J. McLeod of the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1834. Dease river flowing into Great Bear lake was also named after the explorer, as well as Dease bay on that lake. Bib.: Narrative of Discoveries on the North Coast of America; Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Debartzch, P. D. Engaged in journalism. First elected to the Assembly of Lower Canada, 1810; member of the Legislative Council, 1815. Opposed the union of the Canadas. At one time a warm friend of Papineau, but afterwards withdrew his support when the attitude of the popular leader became extreme. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.

DeCelles, Alfred Duclos (1844-1925). Educated at Laval University. Engaged in journalism, and became editor-in-chief of La Minerve, and subsequently of L’Opinion Publique. In 1880 appointed assistant librarian of Parliament, and in 1886 general librarian. Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada in 1884. Made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour, 1904; C. M. G., 1907. Author of a number of historical works in both French and English. Bib.: Papineau-Cartier; Les Etats-Unis; Patriots of 1837; contributed articles on Quebec to Canada and its Provinces.