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II. Romanesque Monuments in Central Europe
Germany
ОглавлениеHowever many varied expressions the Romanesque style of architecture may have found on German soil, there are still three regions that stand out from the others with particularly distinct individual characteristics; Saxony, the Rhineland and Westphalia. These regions’ buildings also most clearly reflect their inhabitants’ tribal culture. For the Saxons, their dogged hold to the traditions of Carolingian times and their sense for strict regularity is typical, and finds a particular expression in the methodic alternation between the pillars and columns carrying the upper walls of the central naves. The buildings of the Rhineland reflect the light-hearted sense of beauty and love of grandeur of a carefree people. The defiant rise of the massive walls between the towers of the western façade in Westphalia corresponds to their taste for the simple and practical, which aimed only to fulfil a particular need without placing great emphasis on decorative forms, but ever more on the buildings’ stability by means of effective construction.
Stiftskirche (collegiate church) St. Cyriacus in Gernrode
The Gernrode Stiftskirche in modern-day Saxony-Anhalt built from 959 A. D. is one of the many structures pre-formed by the Carolingian monastic churches, which were built with two choirs and two transepts. It also retained its overall original character in all other parts, so that it can be gauged from this structure the extent to which Romanesque architecture had already blossomed in Germany in the tenth century, in both the spatial effects of the interior and the monumentality of the exterior appearance.
The church owes its name to St. Cyriacus. Margrave Gero, founder of this church, had brought back a relic of the saint from his pilgrimage to Rome in 963 A. D., during which he also obtained a papal blessing for this building. One feature of the Stiftskirche is the reconstruction of the Holy Sepulchre dating from the eleventh century.
The addition of a second choir at the west end, which generally corresponded exactly to the eastern one, occured wherever two patron saints were honoured. The western choir is not always paired with a transept. In this Stiftskirche, it is demonstrated that the western basilica form is also the foundation of the new system, but in many ways expanded and enriched by new forms. The main old elements – choir, nave and transept – were retained. The choir, however, was gradually enlarged by the insertion of a rectangular space between it and the transept, whose size corresponds to that of the square resulting from the intersection of the centre nave and transept; the crossing. Thus, the floor plan shape of the Latin cross was created already in the monastic plan of St. Gall, which replaced the T-shaped floor plan and remained dominant throughout the Middle Ages. But after this type of twin-choir church had reached its climax in the twelfth, or possibly even the eleventh century, the two evenly developed cross-sections had a characteristic exterior appearance. In the most perfectly formed structure of this kind, the Michaeliskirche (St. Michael’s Church) in Hildesheim, it was even further accentuated by four towers attached to the gables of the transepts.
The central nave of the Stiftskirche rises to quite considerable height above the aisles, above which a triforium is installed, which was originally connected by a gallery on the west side. They were probably used by nuns, who, separate from the lay world, were able to participate in the service in those rooms. The arcades of the central nave were alternately supported by pillars and columns, a form of construction that was presumably first implemented in the Wipertikirche’s crypt.
View of the chevet, Church of St. Maria in the Capitol, Cologne, 1049–1065.
Northeast exterior view, St. Clemens Church, Büsum, 1434–1442.
Bamberg Cathedral, Bamberg, 1004–1012 (burned down in 1087), rebuilt from 1111 to the 13th century.
Michaeliskirche (St. Michael’s Church) of Hildesheim
This alternation of supports was later developed into a true system. In the Michaeliskirche of Hildesheim, for example, as opposed to the churches where the central nave walls were supported by either columns or pillars, the alternation of supports had the aesthetic purpose of emphasising the meaningful structuring of the interior. The series of arches in the triforium, too, are separated in the centre by a pillar, whose position corresponds to that of the lower pillar. The capitals of the columns are still connected to Ancient traditions as they are reminiscent of the shape and foliage work of Corinthian capitals. Between the leaves appear heads and partial figures, which can probably be viewed as an invention of German artisans. They later developed into Romanesque figurative capitals in which medieval artists could exhibit the full richness of their ideas. Another form of the Romanesque capital is the simple shape of a pair of columns with cushion-top capitals at the entrance to Gernrode crypt. It is part of a later period of renewal and renovation in the church interior.
The nave and aisles are, as was customary in the Early Christian basilicas, roofed with flat wooden beam ceilings. The wood was covered with quite rich painting, which cleverly made use of the sectioned ceiling. The ceiling frescos of the Michaeliskirche have, however, almost all completely disappeared, with the exception of those in the nave. They were the favourite creations of Bishop Bernward, who had an appreciation for art and was himself an architect, goldsmith and bronze caster. Of his building only a few remnants remain, among which the columns with the cushion-top capitals (the columns on the far left and right) are markedly different from the richly formed shapes of the later period of renewal, after it had burned down almost completely following a lightning strike in 1034.
Yet the floor plan remained the same, and it can be seen from this that the builders of the eleventh century already designed their churches according to well-considered ratios, within which the secret of the extremely harmonious effect of these Romanesque basilicas can be found. In the Michaeliskirche, the nave is three times as long as it is wide. The three resulting squares are framed by rectangular pillars, between which two columns each are inserted. This is the culmination of the alternation of supports, which was only widespread in Saxony, parallel to the pillar basilica. The two aisles also harmonise with the nave’s proportional size, since they comprise three squares, which are about the same size as those of the central nave. These relatively simple calculations were guarded as the builders’ secrets at the time, which were passed on from generation to generation by word of mouth. These remained in force until far into the Gothic period, during which the secrecy of the church masonic guild of the great cathedrals and basilicas was even written into the rules.
Northwest view, St. George’s Cathedral, Limburg, 1200–1235.
Cloistered buildings and square, Maulbronn Abbey, Maulbronn, 1147 (monastery) and 1178–13th century (church).
The floor plan of the Michaeliskirche, which today is part of UNESCO’s World Cultural Heritage, is a prime example of the culmination of twin-choir church layout in the eleventh century. Its interior, which was only finalised in 1186, is a characteristic example of the rich extravagance in visual and painting décor, which was customary in Saxony at the height of the Romanesque style, and at the same time also speaks of the artistic capabilities of the time. The sculptors and stonemasons who created this art in stone and stucco were not content simply with very rich ornamentation of column capitals with foliage and figurative images. The exteriors of the capital covers as well as the interior of the arches were covered with delicate ornaments. Above the arches runs a vine-like frieze, which in the southern aisle depicts the heads of eight female figures standing on the cover plates, representing the Beatitudes.
This sculptural décor was complimented by a richly structured system of painting. It comprised, in a similar way to the polychrome buildings of Ancient Greece, the non-ornamented parts of the architecture as well as the sculptural décor. Thus the simple cushion-top capitals were painted with leaves, so that they were similar to the ancient calyx capitals. The smooth column shafts were either painted in one colour or marbled in varied colours or wrapped in colourful spiralling bands. In addition to this, there were figurative images on the ceilings and walls.
Horizontal plan, Maulbronn Abbey, Maulbronn, 1147 (monastery) and 1178–13th century (church).
Other Ecclesiastical Buildings
Of the ecclesiastical buildings in Saxony, the following must be emphasised alongside the Stiftskirche in Gernrode and the Michaeliskirche of Hildesheim in Lower Saxony, through which we demonstrated the main characteristics of the Romanesque style in its early and prime periods. They are the Schlosskirche (castle church) in Quedlinburg (Saxony-Anhalt) as well as the Godehardskirche (St. Godehard’s Church) in Hildesheim, the Stiftskirche (collegiate church) in Königslutter and, above all, the cathedral in Braunschweig (all three in Lower Saxony). Because this cathedral was the first to employ vault construction, it became an example for the entire region. Originally a double-aisle pillar basilica, it accumulated four side aisles in the fourteenth century when its aisles were doubled. The building’s initial concept that strove for a serious, ceremonious effect was not impaired.
Wherever one finds a pure column basilica in Saxony, one can safely infer foreign sources. The church of the Paulinzella monastery in Thuringia, whose picturesque ruins still demonstrate today the artful structuring of the building, was built by monks from the Swabian Hirsau monastery. In the small town of Hirsau can be found a double-aisled building of about a hundred metres in length in the shape of a basilica, which was then the largest monastery with the largest Romanesque church building in Germany. At the end of the seventeenth century the church and a castle, which had been erected on the premises in the interim, were set on fire by French troops. Both magnificent buildings were destroyed by the flames. Only the cloister and one of the two original towers, the so-called Eulenturm (Owl Tower), survive today. The column basilica was the most common type of church in Swabia. Its most shining representatives are the cathedrals in Constance and Schaffenhausen, whereby the Constance cathedral was almost completely remodelled in the late Gothic period, particularly its exterior façade.
In the Rhineland, pillar basilicas are prevalent. This can probably be attributed to a quite common building material, the porous tuff stone, which could not be worked on in large pieces. Column basilicas are rare, particularly those with flat roofs, and the actual Rhineland building style of the Romanesque period achieved its highest development in the pillar basilica. The main representatives are the three central Rhineland Imperial Cathedrals in Mainz, Worms and Speyer. They are at the same time the most comprehensive and artistically perfected creations of Romanesque architecture in Germany. Thus, it is particularly mournful that they lost much of their original appearance due to fires, destruction in the many wars until the end of the eighteenth century, and the renovations of the recent past.
Eastern view with Ottonian frescos, Church of St. George, Oberzell, 896-beginning of the 11th century.
Nave, Jerichow Abbey, Jerichow, 1149–1172.
South view, Ratzeburg Cathedral, Ratzeburg, 1160–1220.
Stiftskirche in Bad Hersfeld
The modern-day ruin of the collegiate church is the result of arson by French troops in 1761, who had stockpiled materials inside the collegiate church, which they did not want to leave to the enemy after their defeat in the Seven Years’ War and the consequent withdrawal. The original monastic church was erected as a Carolingian hallenkirche (hall basilica) circa 830 A. D. and 850 A. D. After it burned down in 1038, a new Romanesque structure approximately 100 metres in length was built, with two bell towers, of which only one remains, on the west side. The structure is marked by its single Katharinenturm (St. Catherine’s Tower), which houses the oldest functioning bell in Germany dating from 1038. Due to its age, however, it only rings once a year to mark a festive occasion and to commemorate the monastery’s first abbot, Lullus, the Archbishop of Mainz, who died in Hersfeld in 786 A. D. The collegiate church’s ruin is considered the largest Romanesque church ruin in the world.
Mainz Cathedral
The oldest of the three listed Rhineland cathedrals is Mainz Cathedral, whose foundation by Bishop Willigis dates back to the end of the tenth century. The oldest remaining parts, the round side towers on the east side, which stem from the first third of the eleventh century, were so badly destroyed during a first fire on the day of consecration in 1009 and by another fire in 1137 that the cathedral had to be re-roofed. Based on newly expanded technical knowledge, the original flat wooden roofs were replaced with stone vaults. These, however, only remained until 1159, when intense fighting broke out between the archbishop and the citizens, whereby the latter stormed the cathedral and turned it into a fortress. After the cathedral had remained without a roof for over twenty years, its reconstruction was started, but carried out so slowly that it was only finally concluded in 1239.
Due to this extended construction period, Mainz Cathedral does not present a uniform image of Romanesque style. Additions during the Gothic period interfere with the uniformity of the overall exterior and interior appearance. Careful reconstruction attempted to replace whatever was destroyed by shooting or bombardment during various wars. The cathedral succeeded in maintaining an appearance, at least, of its great age. Surrounded by rows of houses, Mainz Cathedral does not convey a monumental impression when viewed up close. This, however, was probably not the creators’ intent, since the building customs of medieval towns did not grant them great freedom. Where there were no fortifications to protect the citizens’ residences, the main church took their place, with houses arranged in tight circles around it, trusting in the protective power of the house of the Lord. During wartime, they often proved their worth as safe places of refuge, particularly after the invention of long-distance fire weapons had become a great danger for towns under siege.
Only in the course of the nineteenth century did the structure of medieval towns, which was based on defense purposes, see a drastic change. Due to the disproportionately large growth in population, the traffic conditions changed at the expense of the old, romantic townscape. Thus church builders would calculate their designs based on the most impressive long-distance effect, if they wanted to set off their creations against the confinement of the towns. For the town residents themselves, the sculptural décor on the portals was sufficient. On the outside, however, the magnificent effect could only be achieved by size and the extent and variety of the ornamentation of the tower buildings. The effectiveness of the old masters’ calculations with regard to long-distance can be seen most clearly in Mainz Cathedral. Seen from up close, it almost disappears in the surrounding mass of houses despite its huge proportions, while viewed from the other side of the Rhine, it majestically dominates the entire fluvial landscape.
Fortified Castle of Brunswick (Burg Dankwarderode), Brunswick, after 1173.
Gurk Cathedral, Gurk, 12th century.
Speyer Cathedral
Speyer Cathedral suffered an even worse fate than Mainz Cathedral. It surpassed the latter in the splendour of the original architectural conception and in the introduction of the large vault after its reconstruction in 1100 and the uniformity of its execution. It is considered the climax of the Early Romanesque period. It consisted of a nave vault, the oldest basilica covered completely with a groin vault, and the crypt, Europe’s largest Romanesque column hall. As opposed to Mainz Cathedral, the monument of central ecclesiastical power in Germany, Speyer Cathedral was to bear witness to the glory of the German Emperor. It was the intention of its founder, Conrad II, for the cathedral to serve as crypt for him and his successors. When he died nine years after the laying of the foundation stone, the tall, three-part crypt, which was supported by a forest of columns and extended beneath the upper church’s choir and transept, had been completed and was ready to receive the sarcophagus. The church’s founder was thus able to make it his final resting place. The proud structure was, however, only fully completed under his grandson, Henry IV, who had to undertake his famous pilgrimage to Canossa in the Italian province of Emilia-Romagna in January 1077 in order to settle his dispute with Pope Gregory and avert permanent excommunication. With the cathedral’s completion, Henry IV erected the most splendid home and place of worship on German soil for the very same church that excommunicated and persecuted him with bitter hatred even after his death. The place, however, was never blessed. Three times it was destroyed by fire (the worst of which was in 1159, but then again in 1289 and 1540), yet always reconstructed.
View of the south wall of the Imperial Palace of Gelnhausen, second half of the 12th century.
Portico of the atrium and façade, Basilica of Sant’Ambrogio, Milan, 379–386 (continual restorations until 1099).
More damage was done to the cathedral, however, by the French troops who attacked the Palatinate in 1689 and burned the cathedral down to its encirclement walls, having robbed the imperial burial sites. The cathedral’s reconstruction was only begun in 1772. Barely was it completed, however, than it was ravaged again by the French and used as a storeroom for their horses’ hay. The cathedral remained in this state of complete abandonment until 1814, when the Palatine was still part of Bavaria. King Maximilian I had this venerable monument of German imperial glory restored and dedicated for worship in 1822. It was treated with even greater care by his successor, King Ludwig I of Bavaria. He not only funded his expensive mistress, the dancer Lola Montez, but also had the west end towers and the vestibule with its domed tower reconstructed. He commissioned the etcher and historical painter Johann von Schraudolph to decorate the interior with a comprehensive series of frescos. Since Heinrich Hübsch, the architect entrusted with the reconstruction of the destroyed parts and the restoration of the entire building, stayed close to the old remnants, the cathedral’s exterior in its current form also gives the impression of a harmonious, complete composition. The only old part apart from the crypt and the naves’ encircling walls, however, is the upper structure at the east end. The picturesque overall effect of its external appearance is still augmented by a narrow gallery, called the dwarf gallery, unique to the Rhineland churches. A dwarf gallery is an open colonnade which in view of the scarcity of exterior ornamentation in Rhineland architecture did certainly not only have a decorative, but primarily a constructive function. This great cathedral became part of UNESCO’s World Cultural Heritage in 1981.
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