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2. Gudea, Prince of Lagash (anepigraphic statue), Mesopotamian, Tello, ancient Girsu, c. 2120 B.C.E. Diorite, 70.5 × 22.4 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

The art of portraiture did not begin with Antiquity; in fact, historians found the first traces of the portrait during the Upper Paleolithic (c. 30000-12000 B.C.E.) period up until the Neolithic (c. 8000–3000 B.C.E.) period when “artists” already knew and developed many different forms of human representation. From the Venus of Brassempouy (or the Lady with a Hood) to the King of Uruk, thirty thousand years of technical experience had already passed. Although we can not analyse ancient art in a general sense, because of the diversity of all the civilisations involved, we can explain why portraiture during antiquity was radically transformed. The birth of the first writing systems changed the perspective on human form from a supernatural and protective use to a political, religious and funerary use. Historical proofs imply that portraiture was predominantly represented through sculpture. In fact, the materials used in the creation of sculptures, allow them to withstand the test of time much more so than paintings, because at the time painters used tempera to create their frescoes. Tempera was made of crushed coloured pigments (vegetal or mineral based metallic oxides) which dissolved into a water soluble binder such as gum or egg. Unfortunately, this delicate mixture was not easily conserved in humid climates, which explains the lack of ancient paintings, with the exception of Egypt (mainly because of the dry climate), Herculaneum and Pompeii.

Egyptians are considered to be the pioneers of portrait art. They were among the first to develop the concept of idealised, well-proportioned human figures and a narrative tradition through paintings and relief sculpture. The representation of the human body in ancient Egypt was consistent with very precise classifications that the artists strictly followed. This explains the remarkable stability of this art over the centuries. When comparing a portrait of a pharaoh from the Old Kingdom to that of a pharaoh from the New Kingdom, only minimal visual differences can be seen. Another important observation is that Egyptian art was fundamentally anonymous: even up to this day it is impossible to distinguish one artist from another because their style was so rigorously uniform. In fact, a proportional grid served as a guide for the artists. Until recently, researchers have found evidence of two types of these grids: the first was used until the 25th dynasty and the second lasted until the Roman epoch. The work and research of the Egyptologist Gay Robbins during the 80s and 90s (Proportion and Style in Ancient Egyptian Art, 1994) determined, thanks to meticulous analysis, that for any particular epoch numerous different grids existed. The artist chose the one that applied to the sitter’s position that he was trying to represent (standing, sitting, kneeling…) as well as the societal hierarchy (pharaoh, priest, scribe…). Dr. Robins, an Egyptologist, also observed differences between the Middle Kingdom and the Old Kingdom concerning masculine and feminine portraits that can specifically be seen in details such as the shoulders, the small of the back and even the length of the legs.

The expansion of an autonomous Greek art would not have been possible without the initial influence of the Egyptians. With one look at the kouroi of Polymedes of Argos (nos. 36, 37), the artist’s familiarity with Egyptian statuary is easily understood: the standing position, the leading leg, the arms positioned along the body and the clenched fist just like the pharaoh from the Triad of Menkura. Later the Greeks manifested their own original style associated with the monumentality of the personage, heroic nudity and the absence of strut pillars – the traditional support used in ancient Egypt. These first human representations made of stone are not the first attempts at the Hellenistic style in this artistic domain. The first examples were made of wood and, unfortunately, not conserved over time: we only have written proofs of their existence. During the whole of the seventh century B.C.E., this early style of Greek statuary appears in Crete, the island located off of the Levantine coast. This style was called Daedalic or orientalist. If we tried to describe, in a simple and linear progression, the art of Greek sculpture, we could legitimately attest to their inexorable conquest for naturalism. The Archaic period is readily associated with perfecting the representation of the human form in all of its anatomic details (proportion, musculature…). The facial features are frozen in place in what we call the “archaic smile.” This particular expression alludes to the high cheekbones and the curved corners of the mouth, characteristics that are specific to the kouros and koraï between 600 and 500 B.C.E. After a brief transition from the Severe style (between 500 and 480–470 B.C.E.), the famous Greek aesthetic Classical movement developed. Except for the acquisition of the necessary bronze casting techniques (lost wax casting), the Classic period is characterised by their development of depicting movement, mastering the third dimension and the beginnings of facial expression. Even though this era and its masterpieces are the most famous in Greek art, we have come to recognize them, for the most part, through intermediary copies from the Roman epoch. Praxiteles, Phidias, Scopas, and Lysippe were the great sculptors who were known for the classical style that began at the end of Greek civilisation when it was overcome by the Macedonian empire. The Hellenistic portrait (a period beginning with the accession of Alexander and the states created after his Empire was dispersed between his generals in 323 B.C.E.) is distinguished by a facial representation where the expression of emotion became the predominant aspect. Hellenistic art favoured explicit attitudes and depicted the realism of aging, pain, the appropriation of space and the search for equilibrium in sharp movements. The Battle of Actium in 31 B.C.E. was the starting point of Roman dominion over Greece and marks the end of the Greek style.

In addition to the influence of Greek Hellenistic art, the Roman portrait was also inspired by the Etruscan art that preceded it. The original artworks were kept inside houses as ancestral masks (imagines majorum) and as personal traditional customs and later the same artistic techniques were seen in public places with erected honorary statues of famous individuals. The mass production of sculpted portraits during the first century B.C.E. can be attributed to the Roman aristocracy’s (the patricians) rise to power, who consciously conserved the most realistic images of their ancestors. The Togatus Barberini is particularly emblematic of this mentality. This traditional mindset persisted until the imperial epoch, but without great impact. A more restrained and idealised portrait style emerged during the reign of Augustus. Around the beginning of the second century C.E. a more uniform style appeared referencing the classical style, but it did not reach its peak until the last few decades of the centennial. Between 200 and 250, portraiture bequeathed a powerful expressivity of the model which translated into complex emotions. At the close of this era, this expressive tendency disappeared into a very formal portrait, with rigid features and a haughty countenance, a precursor to the late period of antiquity (Colossal Head of Constantine).

3. Triad of Menkaura, Egyptian, Old Kingdom, 4th Dynasty, reign of Menkaura (c. 2532–2503 B.C.E.). Greenish grey schiste, height: 95.5 cm. The Egyptian National Museum, Cairo.

4. Statuette of a King, Sumerian, Al-Warka, former Uruk, 3200 B.C.E. Iraq Museum, Baghdad.

5, 6. Praying couple, from Eshnunna, Tell Asmar, Square temple of Abu, Iraq, Sumerian, c. 2700–2600 B.C.E. Gypsum, shell, black limestone and bitumen (glue and colour), height: 72 cm for the man, 59 cm for the woman. Iraq Museum, Baghdad.

7. “Reserve Head” of a Woman, Giza, Egyptian, Old Kingdom, 4th Dynasty, reign of Khufu (c. 2551–2528 B.C.E.). Limestone, 23.5 × 13 × 19 cm. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

8. The Seated Scribe, Serapeum, Saqqara, Egyptian, Old Kingdom, 4th Dynasty, c. 2620–2500 B.C.E. Painted limestone statue, inlaid eyes: rock crystal, magnesite (magnesium carbonate), copper-arsenic alloy, nipples made of wood, height: 53.7 × 44 × 35 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

The Seated Scribe is the most famous of unknown figures. There has been very little information apprehended about the personage that is being represented; nor the name, title or the exact period during which he lived has been discovered. He is known as the “Seated Scribe” because of his cross legged position with the right leg crossing in front of the left. A white kilt is stretched over the knees acting as a support while his left hand holds a partially rolled piece of papyrus. It is thought that his right hand may have held a brush which is now missing. The most striking aspect of the sculpture is the face with its elaborately inlaid eyes that consist of red-veined white magnesite detailed with pieces of slightly truncated crystal. The backside of the crystal is layered with organic materials that give both colour to the iris and serves as an adhesive. The eyes are held in place by two copper clips and the eyebrows are marked by thin lines of dark organic paint. The hands, fingers and fingernails were sculpted with remarkable delicacy and fine detailed attention was paid to the broad chest marked with wooden dowels that served as the nipples.

The figure sits on a semicircular base that originally fit into a larger base which stated his name, origin and titles and was discovered by French archaeologist Auguste Mariette in November 1850. The scribe is portrayed at work which is unusual in Egyptian statuary. Although no king was ever represented in this position, it seems that it was originally used for members of the royal family.

9. Statue of the Pharaoh Khafra, Egyptian, Old Kingdom, 4th Dynasty, reign of Khafra (2558–2532 B.C.E.). Diorite, height: 168 cm. The Egyptian National Museum, Cairo.

10. Seated Figure, called the Singer Ur-Nanshe, shtar temple, Mari, Tell-Hariri, Sumerian, c. 2520 B.C.E. Gypsum, height: 26 cm. National Museum of Damascus, Damascus.

Discovered by André Parrot in 1952 in the temple of Ninni-zaza in Mari, this small gypsum statue of the singer, Ur-Nanshe, has already provoked extensive written analysis. Is it a woman or a man? What were they holding between their missing arms? What was its function?

For a long time it was considered to be feminine, but a linguistic study of the inscription on the back of the piece confirms that, in fact, it is a masculine figure that was created during the reign of Iblul-Il, the king of Mari. It is not the only Presargonic sculpture to have had its gender questioned. Therefore, neither the long and meticulous straight hair pulled behind the ears nor the traditional kaunakés puffed skirt that covers his thighs are seen as a traits that define the gender of the sculpture. Shorter than other representations of this traditional garment, the skirt seems to have been specifically designed to allow the musician to cross his legs while performing. Even though the arms are missing, his position suggests that he was most likely holding a musical instrument against his bosom. Although it is still difficult to allot a specific role to this small ritual sculpture, it was thought to be used as a symbolic representation of Ur-Nanshe while he was away from the temple so that his songs would play for eternity.

11. Cycladic Figurine, Amorgos, Cyclades, Greek, c. 2500 B.C.E. Marble, height: 30 cm. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Marble and bronze were the two materials most used for Greek sculpture, the latter being much more in use than we would be led to infer from the number of bronze statues preserved. The best marble for statuary came from the island of Paros and from Mt. Pentelicus, in Attica. The Greeks at all periods, strange as it seems to us, applied paint to portions of both their architecture and their sculpture. The eyes, eyebrows, hair, perhaps the lips, and certain parts of the drapery, particularly to indicate a pattern, were painted. The original Greek sculpture, which has escaped the destruction of centuries of greed and ignorance, is but a small fraction of what once existed. The sculpture we have is very largely made up of Roman copies and adaptations of famous earlier works.

12. King Menkaura (Mycerinus) and Queen, Giza, Egyptian, Old Kingdom, 4th Dynasty, reign of Menkaura (2490–2472 B.C.E.). Greywacke, 142.2 × 57.1 × 55.2 cm. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

13. Head of a King (Sargon of Akkad?), Nineveh, Mesopotamian, Akkadian period, c. 2300 B.C.E. Bronze, height: 30.5 cm. Iraq Museum, Baghdad. A masterpiece of Mesopotamian art, this bronze sculpture was discovered in Nineveh, an ancient city in what is now known as Iraq, in the middle of the Temple of Ishtar, the goddess of love and war. Around 2300 B.C.E., the Akkadian empire completely dominated Mesopotamia. Unlike the Sumerians who lived in the south, the Akkadian society consisted of the people from the northern ancient Babylonian civilization. Art historians believe that this mask represents the founder of this empire, Sargon, or possibly his grandson, Naram Sîn. Sargon was a mighty conqueror with excellent strategy who originated from the first unified state in Asia, which allowed him to conquer the other city states of the same region and expand his empire over the Near East. Abandoned at birth, Sargon, according to legend, had a childhood reminiscent of that of Moses and other great founding fathers such as Romulus and Remus. Even if his grandson left a slightly negative image of his forbearer, they are both still considered, however, as major figures in Mesopotamian history.

14. Fragmentary Feminine Statuette, called Woman with a Scarf, Princess from the epoch of Gudea, Prince of Lagash, Tello, former Girsu, Neo-Sumerian, c. 2120 B.C.E. Chlorite, 17.8 × 11 × 6.7 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

15. Statue of the King Ishtup-Ilum, Temple 65, Palace of Zimrilim, Mari, Mesopotamian, early Isin period, c. 1800–1700 B.C.E. Diorite, height: 152 cm. National Archaeological Museum, Aleppo.

16. Head of a God, Tello, former Girsu, Iraq, early 2nd millennium B.C.E. Hand-modelled terracotta, 10.8 × 6.4 × 5.7 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

17. Royal Head, known as the Head of Hammurabi, Shush, former Susa, Iran, Mesopotamian, early 2nd millennium B.C.E. Diorite, 9.7 × 15.2 × 11 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

18. Princess from Akhenaten’s Family, Egyptian, New Kingdom, 1379–1362 B.C.E. Painted limestone, 15.4 × 10.1 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

19. Statue of Idrimi, King of Alalakh, Tell Atchana, former Alalakh, Syrian, 16th century B.C.E. White stone, eyebrows and eyelids originally inlaid, epigraphy, height: 104 cm. British Museum, London.

20. Head of a Women, Egyptian, Middle Empire, 12th Dynasty, reign of Amenemhat I (1991–1962 B.C.E.). Painted wood with gold leaves, height: 10.5 cm. The Egyptian National Museum, Cairo.

21. Head from a statue of Amenhotep III, from Thebes, mortuary temple of Amenhotep III, Egyptian, New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty, reign of Amenhotep III (c. 1390–1352 B.C.E.), c. 1350 B.C.E. Quartzite, height: 117 × 81 × 66 cm. The British Museum, London.

This sculpture is part of one of the largest statues in the Thebes funerary temple of Amenhotep after the nearby Colossi of Memnon. The head was originally part of a full length statue of Amenhotep that was placed between two pillars on the west side of the temple court. The height of the statue in its full form was about 7.5–8 meters high and was found during the excavations that took place in 1964. It is likely that in this representation of Amenhotep he held both the crook and the flail – the symbols of Egyptian kingship. He is shown wearing the red crown and is made from a special brown quartzite, both attributes coming from Lower Egypt. The artist most likely used this type of stone for its polished qualities that make certain features stand out. The eyes are more polished than around the lines of the mouth while the beard and the eyebrows remain completely unpolished, which in turn makes them stand out from the face.

22. Bronze statuette of Thutmose IV, Egyptian, New Kingdom 18th Dynasty, c. 1350 B.C.E. Bronze, height: 14.7 cm. The British Museum, London.

23. Bust of the Queen Nefertiti, Egyptian, New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty, Amarna period, c. 1340 B.C.E. Painted limestone, 47 cm. Neues Museum, Berlin.

Nefertiti is one of the most famous Egyptian queens in world history, partially because of this well-known representation of her. Sculpted in Tell el-Amarna, in the official sculptor to Akhenaton’s studio – where Nefertiti was the royal wife – this bust epitomizes the beauty of its model. The finesse of the representation, the brilliance of its colours and the delicacy of the royal facial features make this sculpture one of the most important masterpieces of Ancient Egypt. During her life, the queen, who retained a major political role beside her husband, was already famous for her remarkable beauty. In fact, the name Nefertiti, in Egyptian, means “the beautiful one has come.” Next to the pharaoh, Nefertiti exercised notable influence on the different cultural and religious changes initiated by her husband, especially concerning the abolition of the cult of Amon and the accession of Aton. Always loyal to the sun god, even after the disappearance of Akhenaton, Nefertiti died at the age of thirty five after retiring from her public life. Along with Nefertiti’s uncertain origins, her grave remains one of the great mysteries of Egyptology. It is probable that at her death, her body was next to that of Akhenaton in Tell el-Amarna. However, remains of her body have yet to be found. Perhaps their bodies were desecrated like the numerous relics from the Amarnian period or they were possibly transferred to Thebes when the city of the heretical pharaoh was abandoned.

24. Akhenaten, Temple of Aton, Karnak, Egyptian, New Kingdom, 18th dynasty, Amarna period, 1353–1335 B.C.E. Sandstone, height: 396 cm. The Egyptian National Museum, Cairo.

25. Head of Tutankhamun on top of a Lotus Flower, Egyptian, New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty, Amarna period, reign of Tutankhamun (1333–1323 B.C.E.). Painted wood stucco, height: 30 cm. The Egyptian National Museum, Cairo.

26. Fragmentary Statue of the Queen Tiye, Medinet el-Gurab, Fayoum, Egyptian, c. 1355 B.C.E. Yew, ivory, silver, gold, lapis lazuli, clay and wax. Altes Museum, Berlin.

27. Panel from the back of Tutankhamun’s golden throne (detail), Egyptian, New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty, Amarna style, reign of Tutankhamun (1333–1323 B.C.E.), c. 1323 B.C.E. Wood, carnelian, glass, faience, silver, gold, stucco. The Egyptian National Museum, Cairo.

28. Statue of the Ka of Tutankhamun, Egyptian, New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty, reign of Tutankhamun (1333–1323 B.C.E), c. 1323 B.C.E. Wood, painted stucco, gold, bronze and gilded bronze, 192 × 53.5 cm. The Egyptian National Museum, Cairo.

29. Funerary Mask of Tutankhamun, Egyptian, New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty, reign of Tutankhamun (c.1333–1323 B.C.E.), c. 1323 B.C.E. Gold, lapis lazuli, carnelian, quartz, obsidian, turquoise, glass paste,54 × 39.3 cm, weight: 11kg. The Egyptian National Museum, Cairo.

The funerary mask of the Egyptian pharaoh, Tutankhamen, is made of solid gold that has been both beaten and burnished. It was made to cover the mummy of the pharaoh after he died and is an approximation of the physical appearance of the king, notably the narrow eyes, fleshy lips and the shape of his chin which are all in accordance with his mummy though the image in its entirety is most likely, to an extent, idealized. The stripes of the nemes on the headdress and the false inlaid beard are made of blue imitation lapis lazuli. The representation of a vulture’s head seen above the king’s left eye symbolizes sovereignty over Upper Egypt. It is also made of solid gold while its beak is made of horn-coloured glass. The cobra above his right eye symbolizes sovereignty over Lower Egypt, is also made of solid gold and has a head made of dark blue faience and gold eyes inlaid with translucent quartz backed with red pigment. The pharaoh’s ear lobes are shown as pierced although when the reliquary object was discovered the holes were covered with discs made of gold foil. Spread across his chest is a broad collar encrusted with segments of lapis lazuli, quartz, green feldspar with a lotus bud border made of coloured glass cloisonné work. The inscription engraved across the shoulders and back of the mask represents a spell that normally first appeared about 500 years before the 18th dynasty, which was intended to protect the mask from harm and was later incorporated in the Book of the Dead.

30. Fragment of a Statue of Meritamun, Ramesseum, Temple of the Queen, Egyptian, 19th Dynasty, reign of Ramses II (1290–1224 B.C.E.). Painted limestone, 75 × 44 cm. The Egyptian National Museum, Cairo.

31. Bust of Ramses II (detail), Tanis, Egyptian, 19th dynasty, reign of Ramses II (1279–1212 B.C.E.). Granite rock, 80 × 70 cm. The Egyptian National Museum, Cairo.

Ramses II has long been regarded as one of Ancient Egypt’s most celebrated and beloved pharaohs. The third king of the 19th dynasty, Ramses took the throne in his twenties and went on to rule for sixty-six years, during which time he launched numerous campaigns in Syria and the surrounding areas and left behind a huge amount of art and architecture dedicated to his legend and likeness, a testament to the prosperity which abounded during his reign. In addition to his wars with the Hittites and Libyans, he is known for his extensive building programs and for the many colossal statues of him found all over Egypt. These monuments include two temples, the astounding Colossus of Ramses at Memphis, a vast tomb at Thebes and the Ramesseum.

32. Wooden Head, near Vulci, Etruscan, end of the 7th century B.C.E. Wood, height: 21 cm. Museo Archeologico, Milan.

33. Statuette of a Woman, known as the “Lady of Auxerre”, Greek, Daedalic style, 2nd half of the 7th century B.C.E. Limestone, paint, height: 75 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

This limestone sculpture is a testimony to the intense artistic activity that took place in the eastern regions of the Mediterranean basin during the Daedelic period in Greece. It was found in the storeroom of the Auxerre Museum in 1907 without any information regarding its initial discovery. It is an example of sculpture from the Daedalic period seen from the U-shaped face, thick strands of hair and the meticulous, stylistic detailing. Since nothing is known of its origin it is hard to identify the person being depicted and determine its different gestures. The woman could either be a goddess since many terra cotta figurines of Middle Eastern divinities that specifically highlight sexual attributes were being created during the same period. Another possibility could be the representation of a servant in a fertility cult or even the dedicator herself making a gesture in prayer.

34. Kouros of the Sounion cape, Room 8, Poseidon Temple, Sounion, Greek, Archaic style, c. 600 B.C.E. Naxos marble, height: 305 cm. National Archaeological Museum, Athens.

35. Head of a Colossal Kouros, near the Dipylon Gate, Kerameilkos, Athens, Greek, Archaic style, c. 610 B.C.E. Marble, height: 44 cm. National Archaeological Museum, Athens.

This fragment is a rare early example of the “kouros”, or standing male statue. Its name comes from the Dipylon Cemetery in Athens where it was found. There, in the sixth century B.C.E., statues were sometimes used as grave markers, as they are today. While female statues were modestly dressed, the male versions were nude, perhaps indicating a god or a hero. These statues developed both from a local tradition of small figurines and from the Egyptian tradition of large stone sculpture. The early date of this piece is revealed through the style, which is more decorative than realistic. The eyes and eyebrows are deeply-set, the contours of the face are flat, and the shape of the ear is indicated with concentric, curved lines. The hair is patterned in an Egyptian manner and held back with a band. Over the course of the sixth century, Greek sculpture would lose this patterned, decorative quality and become increasingly realistic and lifelike.

36. Polymedes of Argos (active around 600 B.C.E.), Kouros, so-called Kleobis, Apollo Sanctuary, Delphi, Greek, Archaic style, c. 590–580 B.C.E. Marble, height: 218 cm. Delphi Archaeological Museum, Delphi.

37. Polymedes of Argos (active around 600 B.C.E.), Kouros, so-called Biton, Apollo Sanctuary, Delphi, Greek, Archaic style, c. 590–580 B.C.E. Marble, height: 218 cm. Delphi Archaeological Museum, Delphi.

38. Moschophoros (calf bearer), Athenian Acropolis, Greek, Attic, Archaic style, c. 570 B.C.E. Hymettus marble, traces of paint, height: 165 cm. Acropolis Museum, Athens.

39. Kouros of Tenea, formerly Apollo of Tenea, Greek, Corinthian, Archaic style, c. 560–550 B.C.E. Marble, height: 153 cm. Glyptothek, Munich.

40. Kore from the Cheramyes group, known as the “Hera of Samos”, Temple of Hera, Samos, Greek, Samian, Archaic style, c. 570–560 B.C.E. Marble, height: 192 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

This kore is best understood through comparison to the earlier Auxerre Kore (see no. 33). It continues the tradition sculpting the standing female in stone, but shows the development in the art form. This kore, like the earlier example, is modestly draped in a long gown and a shawl, but the form of her body is more visible underneath, especially the curves of her shoulders, breasts, and belly. The sculptor has drawn attention to these forms by showing how the clothing gathers, pleats and falls as it drapes over the woman’s body. Instead of the heavy, patterned woollen peplos worn by the Auxerre Kore (see no. 33), this kore wears a chiton, a tightly pleated, lightweight garment made of linen. The pleats are shown in detail, creating a vertical pattern that contrasts with the diagonal drapery of the shawl. This attention to the patterns of drapery would continue to characterise female sculpture in Greece over the coming centuries.

41. Kore, so called “Berlin Goddess”, Keratea, Greek, Attic, Archaic style, c. 570–560 B.C.E. Marble, height: 193 cm. Pergamon Museum, Berlin.

42. Kore 671, Athenian Acropolis, Greek, Attic, Archaic style, c. 520 B.C.E. Marble, height: 177 cm. Acropolis Museum, Athens.

43. The Peplos Kore or Kore 679, Athenian Acropolis, Greek, Attic, Archaic style, c. 530 B.C.E. Paros marble, height: 118 cm. Acropolis Museum, Athens.

44. The “Sarcophagus of the Spouses”, Cerveteri, Etruscan, c. 520–510 B.C.E. Polychrome terracotta, clay, slip, paint, modelling and moulding, 111 × 194 × 69 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

This exceptional monument is a sarcophagus or cinerary urn from Caere, a city famous during the Archaic period for its clay sculpture. During this epoch terracotta was one of the preferred materials in the sculpture workshops in this region and was used to make funerary monuments and architectural decorations. The ductility of the clay offered these artisans numerous possibilities, compensating for the lack of stone suitable in southern Etruria.

This particular monument was found in 1861 by Napoleon III and is often regarded as a sarcophagus because of its exceptional dimensions. It features the two deceased tenderly entwined, reclining on a bed in accordance with the style that originated in Asia Minor. They are making the ritual gesture of offering perfume that, along with the sharing of wine, was part of traditional funeral ceremony. The casket and lid are decorated with bright paintwork, now partially disappeared, that adds to the elegance of the ornaments as well as the details in the fabric and the hair. The style of this particular sculpture shows strong influence from Eastern Greece, particularly from the Ionians, which can be seen from the smiling faces and full forms of the two figures, but there are also very prominent Etruscan features such as the lack of formal coherence, the way the legs received less sculptural volume and the emphasis on the gestures of the deceased.

45. Statue of Latona Bearing the Infant Apollo, Portonaccio temple, Veio, Etruria, Etruscan, c. 525–500 B.C.E. Acroterion terracotta statue. Museo di Villa Guilia, Rome.

46. Archermos of Chios (?) (active around 550 B.C.E.), Kore 675 or Chiotissa Kore, Athenian Acropolis, Greek, Chian (?), Archaic style, c. 520–510 B.C.E. Marble, height: 54.5 cm. Acropolis Museum, Athens.

47. The Euthydikos Kore or Kore 685 also called “The Sulky Kore”, Athenian Acropolis, Greek, Severe style, c. 490 B.C.E. Parian and pentelic marble, height: 122 cm. Acropolis Museum, Athens.

48. Kore 674, Acropolis, Athens, Greek, Attic, Archaic style, c. 500 B.C.E. Marble, height: 92 cm. Acropolis Museum, Athens.

49. Head of a Kouros, Marzabotto, Etruria, Greek, Ionian, Archaic style, c. 500 B.C.E. Marble of Cycladic provenance, height: 17.2 cm. Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Marzabotto, Marzabotto.

50. Blond Kouros’s Head, Athenian Acropolis, Greek, Severe style, c. 485 B.C.E. Marble, traces of paint, height: 25 cm. Acropolis Museum, Athens.

51. Bust of Herodotus, Benha, former Athribis, Egypt, Greek, Late Classical style, Roman copy (2nd century C.E.) of an original from the late 5th century B.C.E. Marble, height: 47.6 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

52. The Celtic Prince of Glauberg, outside the larger tumulus, Glauberg, Celtic, Early La Tène style, 5th century B.C.E. Sandstone, height: 186 cm. Hessisches Landesmuseum, Darmstadt.

53. Kritios (?) (active around the 5th century B.C.E.), The Kritios Boy, Athenian Acropolis, Greek, Athenian, Severe style, c. 480–470 B.C.E. Paros marble, height: 117 cm. Acropolis Museum, Athens.

54. The Charioteer of Delphi or Heniokhos (rein-holder), Delphi, Greek, Severe style, c. 478 or 474 B.C.E. Bronze, height: 180 cm. Delphi Archaeological Museum, Delphi.

Delphi was a pan-Hellenic sanctuary, a place where people from all over the Greek world would gather to worship, consult the oracle, and participate in the Pythian games, held every four years. The games were comprised of music and sporting events, including chariot racing. This sculpture was part of a group dedicated to commemorate a victory in a chariot race, we are told by the inscription preserved on the piece. In addition to the chariot driver, there were horses, a chariot, and a groom. The lavish expenditure on the life-size monument would have represented not only the victory in the race, but also the great wealth of the donor. The bronze figure was enlivened with inlay of silver, copper, and stone in the teeth, headband, and eyes. The deep, straight folds of the drapery are in keeping with the Early Classical, or Severe, style of sculpture.

55. Symposiast (detail), south wall, Tomb of the Diver, Paestum, Greek, Classical style, c. 470 B.C.E. Fresco on limestone. In situ.

56. Velia Velcha, right wall of the tomb of Orcus I or tomb of Velcha, Tarquinia, Etruscan, Hellenistic influence, 470–450 B.C.E. Paint: cinnabar, ochre, orpiment, calcite, copper, Egyptian blue. In situ.

57. Statue of Zeus or Poseidon, bottom of the sea off Cape Artemision, in north Euboea, Greek, Severe style, c. 460 B.C.E. Bronze, height: 209 cm. National Archaeological Museum, Athens.

Discovered off the coast of Cape Artemision in 1926, this statue (which is also referred to as the Artemision Bronze) is the subject of much speculation and debate, specifically, about whether the statue represents Zeus or Poseidon. The source of the confusion surrounds whether the missing object in the statue’s right hand is a trident (indicating Poseidon) or a lightening bolt (indicating Zeus).

Though it was found in the sea, and the pose is similar to that which is found on the Poseidonia coins, many scholars note that a trident would obscure the best view of the statue – its profile – and thus, it is more likely that the statue is a portrayal of Zeus, especially when one considers the numerous smaller bronzes which have been found wielding lightening bolts in the same fearsome pose.

58. Riace Warrior A, found in the sea off Riace, Italy. Greek, Severe style, c. 460 B.C.E. Bronze, height: 198 cm. Museo Nazionale della Magna Grecia, Reggio Calabria.

59. Myron (active during the second half of the 5th century B.C.E.), Discobolus Palombara (Discus thrower), 1st century Roman copy after a Greek original, Severe style, 460–450 B.C.E. Marble, height: 148 cm. Museo Nazionale Romano, Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome.

In Myron’s Discobolus, we see the human form freed from the standing, frontal pose of earlier statues. Here, the artist is clearly interested not only in the body of the athlete, but in the movement of the discus thrower. His muscles tense and strain in preparation for his throw, his face focused on his activity. While the pose, with the arms forming a wide arc, is revolutionary, the piece is still meant to be viewed from the front. It would not be until the following century that artists began to conceive of sculpture that could be viewed from all sides.

MYRON

(ACTIVE DURING THE SECOND HALF OF THE 5th CENTURY B.C.E.)

Myron, was a Greek sculptor from the second half of the fifth century B.C.E who worked almost exclusively in bronze. Though he did create sculptures of both gods and heroes, his reputation rests essentially on his representations of athletes, a domain where he is considered to be revolutionary because of the audacious poses and rhythms of his subjects. His most famous pieces are of Ladas, the runner who died at the moment of his victory and the discus thrower, Discobolus.

60. Phidias (c. 480–430 B.C.E.), Apollo Parnopios, early 2nd century C.E. Roman copy of a Greek original, c. 450 B.C.E. Pentelic marble, height: 197 cm. Staatliche Museen, Kassel.

PHIDIAS

(ATHENS, c. 488 B.C.E. – OLYMPIA, c. 430 B.C.E.)

Phidias is universally known and considered as the most important Greek sculptor of his time. His oldest masterpieces were created in memory of the Battle of Marathon. He also erected a colossal bronze effigy of Athena on the Acropolis in Athens that was so high that it was visible at sea. It is because of his gold, bronze and ivory statues that he has been exceedingly praised since Antiquity. Art critics hold his work in high esteem particularly because of his aesthetic and the consistent moral content in his work.

61. Kresilas (c. 5th century B.C.E.), Bust of Pericles, Roman copy after a Greek original, Classical style, c. 430 B.C.E. Marble, height: 48 cm. Museo Pio-Clementino, Vatican City.

62. Kresilas (c. 5th century B.C.E.), Munich Diomedes, Roman copy after a Greek original, Classical style, c. 440–430 B.C.E. Marble, height: 102 cm. Glyptothek, Munich.

63. Caryatid from the Erechtheion, second from the left on the front of the south porch, Athenian Acropolis, Greek, Classical style, c. 420 B.C.E. Marble, height: 231 cm. The British Museum, London.

In the caryatid, the column takes its most ornate form, replaced entirely by the statue of a woman. It decorates the porch of the Erechtheion, a temple to Athena on the Acropolis in Athens, built to replace one destroyed by the Persians. In its form and decoration, this temple deviates from tradition, including not only the unusual caryatids, but also an asymmetrical plan on varying ground levels, with two porches jutting out of the main building. This atypical plan was due to the multiple shrines incorporated into the temple, and also to its placement on an uneven rocky outcrop, home to the original olive tree given to the city by Athena. The six caryatids supported the south porch, one of the unusual additions to the regular temple plan. The caryatid figures have all the solidity of form we find in other fifth-century sculpture, and therefore seem up to the task of supporting a roof. The exaggerated shift in weight, and the clinginess of the drapery, are typical of sculpture of the end of the fifth century B.C.E.

64. Cinerary urn in shape of Mater Matuta, Pedata Necropolis, Chianciano, Etruscan, c. 430 B.C.E. Terracotta. National Archaeological Museum, Florence.

65. Mars of Todi, Todi, Etruscan, end of the 5th century B.C.E. Bronze, hollow-cast bronze, height: 141 cm. Gregorian Etruscan Museum, Vatican City.

The Mars of Todi (Marte de Todi) is one of the rare statues still existing from ancient Etruscan civilisation. It is a sculpture of a warrior, cast in bronze, wearing armour and, in principle, a helmet. He is preparing to perform a battle ritual by pouring liquid from a peculiar shaped cup or bowl from his extended right hand while his left hand leans on an iron spear. The style portrays strong influences from mid-fifth century Greek art and was found between two slabs of Travertine in Todi, a town located in the state of Umbria in Italy, perhaps after being struck by lightning. There is a dedicatory inscription written in the Etruscan alphabet which states that it was a gift given by a certain Ahal Trutitis.

66. Head of an Old Man, Belvedere Temple, Orvieto, Etruscan, late 5th-4th century B.C.E. Terracotta, height: 16 cm. National Archaeological Museum, Orvieto.

67. Mourning Woman from a funerary stele, Greek, Classical style, c. 400 B.C.E. Marble, height: 122 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

68. Polykleitus (active during the 5th century B.C.E.), Doryphoros (spear-holder), Classical style, 50-150 B.C.E. Roman copy of a Greek original, c. 450–440 B.C.E. Pentelic marble. Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Minneapolis.

Polykleitos

(ACTIVE DURING THE 5TH CENTURY B.C.E.)

Polykleitos was a contemporary of Phidias, and in the opinion of the Greeks, his equal. He made a figure of an Amazon for Ephesus regarded as superior to the Amazon of Phidias made at the same time; and his colossal Hera of gold and ivory, which stood in the temple near Argos, was considered worthy to rank with the Zeus of Phidias.

The masterpiece of Polykleitos, his Hera of gold and ivory, has of course totally disappeared. Ancient critics reproached Polykleitos for the lack of variety in his works.

69. Polykleitus (active during the 5th century B.C.E.), Diadumenos (young man binding his hair), Diadumenos House, Delos, Classical style, 10 °C.E. Roman copy of a Greek original, c. 450–425 B.C.E. Marble, height: 195 cm. National Archaeological Museum, Athens.

70. Lysippos (c. 395–305 B.C.E.), Hermes Fastening His Sandal, 2nd century Roman copy after Greek original, Classical style, middle of the 4th century. Marble, height: 161 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

71. Praxiteles (active between 375–335 B.C.E.), Apollo Sauroctonos (the Lizard Slayer), 1st or 2nd century C.E. Roman copy of a Greek original, Classical style, c. 340 B.C.E. Marble, height: 149 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

Praxiteles

(ACTIVE BETWEEN 375–335 B.C.E.)

Praxiteles of Athens is considered to be one of the greatest Attic sculptors of the fourth century B.C.E. We gained a considerable amount of knowledge about the sculptor after the discovery of the statue of Hermes and the Infant Dionysus in 1877. Among the numerous copies of his sculptures that have been acquired, the most admirable is that of Apollo Sauroctone, the lizard slayer, who is depicted as a young boy, leaning against a tree ready to catch a lizard.

72. Votive Bust of a Woman, Etruscan, 4th century B.C.E. Terracotta. Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome.

73. Fragmentary Male Head, Belvedere temple, Orvieto, Etruscan, early 4th century B.C.E. Terracotta, height: 14 cm. Museo Archeologico, Orvieto.

74. The Young Lance Carrier, tomb C of Agios Athanasios necropolis, Cyprus, Macedonian influence, last quarter of the 4th century B.C.E. In situ.

75. Lysippos (c. 395–305 B.C.E.), Hercules Farnese, Baths of Caracalla, Rome, Roman copy made c. 216 C.E. by Glycon of Athens of a Greek original, Greek, Classical style, 4th century B.C.E. Marble, height: 317 cm. (without pedestal 292 cm). Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples.

This representation of Hercules Farnese is most likely an enlarged Roman copy made in the early third century C.E. of the original by Lysippos. The copy is assumed to have been made for the Baths of Caracalla in Rome where it was excavated in 1546. It is a massive muscular marble statue modelled after a bronze cast that was made through the lost wax casting method. It depicts a fatigued Hercules leaning on his giant club that is draped with the pelt of a Nemean lion. He is performing the last of The Twelve Labours, which is suggested by the Apples of Hesperides that he holds behind his back with his right hand. When the sculpture was discovered it was found in separate pieces and over time has been reassembled and restored.

Lysippos

(c. 395–305 B.C.E.)

The Greek sculptor Lysippos was at the head of the School of Argos and Sicyon at the time of Philip and Alexander of Macedonia. His masterpieces amount up to about 1500 works including many statues that are colossal in size. He was particularly innovative in his perception of male body proportions. Contrary to his predecessors, he would reduce the size of the head and sculpt a strong, slender body, giving the impression of a taller almost imposing sculpture.

76. Skopas (c. 400–350 B.C.E.), Maenad, reduced Roman copy after a Greek original, Greek, Classical style, c. 350 B.C.E. Marble, height: 45 cm. Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Dresden.

77. Philoxenos of Eritrea, The Alexander Mosaic (detail of Alexander the Great), House of the Faun, Pompeii, c. 100 B.C.E. Roman copy of an original Greek painting, Hellenistic style, 330–300 B.C.E. Mosaic in opus vermiculatum, height: 512 × 271 cm. Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples.

78. Head of a Girl with Melon Coiffure, Sanctuary of Artemis, Athens, Greek, Hellenistic style, c. 300 B.C.E. Marble, 19 × 14.4 × 16.2 cm. The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles.

79. Lysippos (c. 395–305 B.C.E.), Head of Alexander the Great, Pergamon, Roman copy after a Greek original, Greek, Classical style, c. 320 B.C.E. Marble, height: 41 cm. Archaeological Museum, Istanbul.

Taking the throne at the age of twenty, Alexander was determined to continue his father, Philip II of Macedon’s, dream of conquering Asia. Rallying the Macedonian army, Alexander lead a force of 43,000 infantry and 5,500 cavalry from Greece to Persia to eventually overthrow the entire Persian Empire in battle before going on to invade India. There, Alexander was forced to turn back due to the protests of his troops, but in the short time that he had reigned he had already amassed one of the largest empires in ancient history.

Contracting a fever while returning to Greece from India, Alexander died in Babylon at the age of thirty-two, however, Alexander’s short life had a huge impact on the history of the world. Shortly after his death, Alexander’s generals divided the conquered lands amongst themselves, thus dispersing Hellenistic culture throughout the East and ultimately influencing the world as we know it today.

80. Skopas (c. 400–350 B.C.E.), Meleager, 2nd century Roman copy of a Greek original, Greek, Classical style, c. 340 B.C.E. Parian marble, height: 123 × 63 × 42 cm. Arthur M. Sackler Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge.

81. So-called Capitoline Brutus, Roman, Republican style, 4th-3rd century B.C.E., the bust is a modern adding. Bronze, height: 69 cm. Musei Capitolini, Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome.

According to legendary early history Lucius Junius Brutus was the founder of the Roman Republic at the end of the sixth century B.C.E. His story is told by various historians, particularly, Titus Livius. Known for his sense of justice, his sense of honor and his generosity, he is one of the main characters in “The Life of Publicola”, one of the forty-six biographies in the Parallel Lives of Famous Statesmen (Bíoi parálleloi) by Plutarch.

These different sources reflect the immoral and criminal administration of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of Rome and his sons Titus, Sextus Tarquinius and Arruns.

Tarquinius declared war on the small town of Ardea. While the soldiers lay siege to the city, Sextus, the youngest son of the King, asks Lucretia, the wife of fellow nobleman Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, to be taken into her home as her guest. Aroused by Lucretia’s famed beauty and purity, Sextus takes advantage of her hospitality and rapes her the same night. After he departs, Lucretia sends word to her father and her husband who, accompanied by Brutus, rush to her. Lucretia brings the crime to light and makes the men swear to take vengeance upon the rapist before stabbing herself to death.

Organizing an armed uprising with the Roman people to drive the besieging Tarquins away, Brutus and the opponents of the king oust the tyrannical ruler. As a result of their leadership, Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus became the first elected consuls. However, the resentment of the Roman population against all Collatine forces eventually caused the last consul to go into exile. Publius Valerius Publicola was then elected in Collatinus’ stead.

In spite of this dramatic show of democracy, not everyone in Rome was convinced of these Republican ideas and before long the sons of the old-established aristocratic families hatched a conspiracy. Among the leaders were two of the sons of Brutus, Titus and Tibberius, who, because of found letters sent to the Tarquins as evidence, were immediately exiled.

As consul, Brutus saw himself forced to judge them and condemned his sons to death, and without batting an eyelid, participated in their torture and execution. At the same time Tarquinius Superbus and his Etruscan allies were still attempting to find support in Rome to invade the Roman territory. still, the consuls were expecting them and during the battle Arruns and Brutus both die in a duel.

The Roman patrician of the gender of Iunii Bruti remained, for a long time, a very influential statesmen. Another well-known member of this family, was none other than the adopted son of Julius Caesar, Marcus Junius Brutus, who was most notably involved in Caesar’s assassination on the fifth of March 44 BCE. Consequently, both, the founder and destroyer of the Roman Republic, belonged to the same family.

82. Heliodoros, Pan teaching Daphnis to play the panpipes, Roman copy after a Greek original, 3rd-2nd centuries B.C.E. Marble, 158 cm. Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, Naples.

83. Metope from the Tomb of the Swing, Cyrene, Libya, Hellenistic style, c. 200 B.C.E. Chalk painting, 34 × 28 cm. In situ.

84. Female Votive Head, Sanctuary of Diana, Nemi, Etruscan, 3rd century B.C.E. Pinkish-yellow clay, height: 26.5 cm. Museo Archeologico, Florence.

85. Artemis of Ephesus, Roman copy from Hadrian reign (117–138 C.E.) after a Greek original, Greek, Hellenistic retrospective style, 2nd century B.C.E. Bronze and alabaster, 203 cm. Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples.

86. Sarcophagus of Larthia Seianti, Marcianella Necropolis, Chiusi, Etruscan, 175–150 B.C.E. Terracotta. Museo Archeologico di Firenze, Florence.

87. Young Boy, Greek, Late Hellenistic style, c. 100 B.C.E.-10 °C.E. Pentelic marble, 87.3 × 40 cm. Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond.

88. Gravestone of Apollonia, Athens, Greek, c. 100 B.C.E. Marble, 112.4 × 63.5 × 20 cm. The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles.

89. The Boxer of Quirinal or Terme Boxer, Roman copy of a Greek original, Hellenistic style, 100-50 B.C.E. Bronze, height: 128 cm. Museo Nazionale Romano, Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome.

A rare bronze statue that survived from antiquity, this powerful image of a tired boxer is likely an original Hellenistic work, dated perhaps to the first century B.C.E. The seated pose of the boxer invites the viewer to look down at the figure, as he in turn looks up, perhaps to discover the verdict of the judge. He still wears his boxing gloves, and is badly bruised and bleeding, his face and ears swollen from the fight. Despite these wounds, he does not appear defeated. He has all the exaggerated musculature of the other Hellenistic works.

90. The Arringatore or Portrait of Aulus Metellus, Sanguineto (Lake Trasimeno) or Pila (near Perugia), Roman subject, Etruscan workmanship, Republican style, c. 90 B.C.E. Bronze, solid and hollow lost wax casting, height: 170 cm. Museo Archeologico, Florence.

91. Togatus Barberini, Roman, first quarter of the 1st century B.C.E. Marble. Musei Capitolini, Rome.

In Roman tradition, figural sculpture was not intended to portray a young, athletic ideal, as it was for the Greeks. Instead, it represented the ideal of Roman society: the wise, elder statesman, patriarch of a family, part of a distinguished lineage. Sculptures were portraits of individuals and included all their flaws – wrinkles, warts, funny noses and knobby knees. This style is called “verism,” meaning truth. It was the dominant style during the Roman Republic. Here, an elderly man holds portrait busts of his ancestors, showing his respect for them, and at the same time drawing attention to his lineage. Such portraits would be prominently displayed in the atrium of the home.

92. Male Portrait, Manganello Sanctuary, Cerveteri, Etruscan, early 1st century B.C.E. Painted terracotta, height: 32 cm. Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia, Rome.

93. Portrait Bust of Cicero, Roman, 1st century B.C.E. Marble. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.

94. Portrait Head, old palaestra, Delos, Greek, late Hellenistic style, c. 80 B.C.E. Bronze, height: 32.4 cm. National Archaeological Museum, Athens.

95. Portrait Head of Cleopatra VII, Roman, c. 31 B.C.E. Marble, height: 29.5 cm. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Antikensammlung, Berlin.

This was the regular name of the queens of Egypt in the Ptolemaic dynasty after Cleopatra, daughter of the Seleucid Antiochus the Great, wife of Ptolemy V. The best known was the daughter of Ptolemy Dionysus, whose wife, in accordance with Egyptian custom, she was to become. A few years afterwards, deprived of all royal authority, she withdrew into Syria, and made preparation to recover her rights by force of arms. At this juncture Julius Caesar followed Pompey into Egypt. The personal fascinations of Cleopatra induced Caesar to undertake a war on her behalf, in which Ptolemy lost his life, and she was replaced on the throne in conjunction with a younger brother, who she would soon allegedly kill by poison. In Rome she lived openly with Caesar as his mistress until his assassination, when, aware of her unpopularity, she returned at once to Egypt. Subsequently she became the ally and mistress of Mark Antony. Their connection was highly unpopular at Rome, and Octavian declared war upon them and defeated them at Actium (32 B.C.E.). Cleopatra escaped to Alexandria, where Antony joined her. There are many versions told of the demise of Antony and Cleopatra. One tells that, having no prospect of ultimate success, she accepted the proposal of Octavian that she should assassinate Antony, and enticed him to join her in a mausoleum which she had built in order “that they might die together.” Antony committed suicide in the mistaken belief that she had already done so, but Octavian refused to yield to the charms of Cleopatra, who put an end to her life by applying an asp to her bosom, according to the common tradition, in her thirty-ninth year (August 29, 30 B.C.E.). With her ended the dynasty of the Ptolemies, and Egypt was made a Roman province. Cleopatra had three children by Antony, and by Julius Caesar, as some say, a son, called Caesarion, who was put to death by Octavian. In her the type of queen characteristic of the Macedonian dynasties stands in the most brilliant light. Imperious will, masculine boldness, relentless ambition like hers had been exhibited by queens of her race since the old Macedonian days before Philip and Alexander. But the last Cleopatra had perhaps some special intellectual endowment. She surprised her generation by being able to speak the many tongues of her subjects. There may have been an individual quality in her luxurious profligacy, but then her predecessors had not had the Roman lords of the world for wooers.

96. Grave Relief of Aiedius and His Wife, Roman, 30 B.C.E. Marble, 64 × 99 cm. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Pergamon Museum, Berlin.

97. Portrait of Julius Caesar, Roman, c. 30–20 B.C.E. Marble, 56 × 19 × 26 cm. Vatican Museums, Vatican City.

Julius Caesar began his political leadership as the head of the traditionally Republican government of Rome, but ended it as a murdered dictator. Caesar had taken control over the vast empire of Rome, eschewing the practice of sharing power with the Senate. He was both revered for his strong leadership and resented for his tyranny. It was that resentment that led to his assassination on the fifth of March, 44 B.C.E. This portrait expresses not only Caesar’s likeness, but also his character. We sense his strength, intelligence and nobility. The bust follows the Republican tradition of veristic portraiture.

98. Augustus as Pontifex Maximus (High Priest), Via Labicana, Rome, Roman, Imperial style, after 12 B.C.E. Marble, height: 200 cm. Museo Nazionale Romano, Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome.

99. Portrait of Octavian, Roman, Imperial style, 35–29 B.C.E. Marble, height: 74 cm. Musei Capitolini, Rome.

Octavian, better known as Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus, inherited the title of emperor after Caesar’s assassination in 44 B.C.E. He later joined forces with the infamous Mark Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in a military dictatorship also known as the Second Triumvirate. During this period, he ruled Rome and many of its provinces. The group was eventually torn apart by the competing ambitions of its rulers. Octavian later completely restored the outward façade of the Roman Republic by investing the power in the Roman Senate and no longer ruling Rome as a emperorship, which in the end allotted him the name “Augustus”, meaning “The Revered One.”

100. Augustus of Prima Porta, Villa ad Gallinas which belonged to Livia, Rome, 14 C.E. copy of a Roman bronze, Imperial style, 20 B.C.E. Marble, height: 204 cm. Vatican Museums, Vatican City.

Augustus, the first emperor of Rome, transformed the way art and image were used by the Romans. He rejected the “veristic” style of Roman portraiture, preferring instead to emulate the High Classical style of fifth-century Greece. In this portrait, found at the villa of his wife Livia at Prima Porta, Augustus is shown in a pose that directly quotes Polykleitos’ Doryphoros, the best-known statue of the fifth century. In doing so, Augustus called upon all the associations the High Classical period carried: empire and power, but also democracy. Augustus was trying to appease those who might resent his absolute rule and the end of the Republic. He was at once advertising his strength, and also his role as a fair, democratic leader who would represent the senate and the people of Rome.

101. Heracles (detail of the Abduction of Dejanire), Sacellum des Augustales, Herculaneum, Roman, Fourth Pompeian style (20–79 C.E.). Fresco. In situ.

102. Nymph, detail of a scene depicting the death of Icarus, Pompeii, Imperial Villa, Room A, Roman, Fourth Pompeian style (20–79 C.E.), 62–79 C.E. Fresco. In situ.

103. Portrait of Gaius Julius Caesar or The Green Cesar, Roman Egypt, beginning of the 1st century C.E. Basanite (marmoreal eyes inlays are modern), height: 41 cm. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Altes Museum, Antikensammlung, Berlin.

104. Portrait Head of a Young Man, Roman, Imperial style, middle of the 1st century C.E. Marble, height: 28 cm. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen.

105. Head of a Colossal Statue of Augustus, Roman, Imperial style, posthumous portrait, 41–54 C.E. Marble. Vatican Museums, Chiaramonti Museum, Vatican City.

106. Relief from the Tomb of a Family of Roman Freed Men and Women, Roman, 1st Century C.E. Marble, 74 × 185 × 30 cm. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen.

107. Colossal Head of Tiberius, Veii, Roman, Imperial style, posthumous portrait, 41–54 C.E. Marble. Vatican Museums, Museum Chiaramonti, Vatican City.

108. Mummy Portrait of a Young Man, Hawara, Egypt, Roman, c. 70-12 °C.E. Encaustic on cedar wood, 38.3 × 22.8 cm. The British Museum, London.

109. Mummy Portrait of a Woman, Hawara, Egypt, Roman, c. 55–7 °C.E. Encaustic on cedar wood, 41.6 × 21.5 cm. The British Museum, London.

110. The Child, Fayum, c. 1st-2nd century C.E. Encaustic on wood, 35.5 × 16.5 cm. Egyptian Museum, Cairo.

111. Female Theatre Mask, Casa del Bracciale d’Oro, Pompeii, Roman, Third Pompeian style, before 6 °C.E. Fresco. In situ.

The murals discovered in the ancient cities around the Bay of Naples, notably Pompeii and Herculaneum, were found after extensive excavations in the eighteenth century by the architect Domenico Fontana. Among the artefacts found were the many surviving frescoes that are extremely fine examples of the late Second Style, the most renowned style in Roman wall painting. Many of these murals often included different visual ambiguities to tease the viewer, vivid expressions and depth conveyed by shadows. There are architectural details as well that are painted to resemble real ones such as rusticated masonry, pillars and columns that cast shadows into the viewer’s space.

112. Bust of Emperor Nero, Roman, 54–68 C.E. (left side of the face), 17th century (right side of the face and bust). Marble, height: 66 cm. Musei Capitolini, Rome.

113. Statuette of Asklepios, small Roman copy of a life-sized Hellenistic model, Roman, Imperial style, c. 100–15 °C.E. Bronze, height: 16.5 cm. The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles.

114. Fonseca Bust, Roman, beginning of the 2nd century C.E. Marble, height: 63 cm. Musei Capitolini, Rome.

115. Bust of a Poetess, also called “Sabine Richelieu” (collection of the cardinal), Roman, c. 120–13 °C.E. Marble, height: 66 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

116. Bust of Hadrian, Roman, Imperial style, c. 117–138 C.E. Marble. Museo Nazionale Romano, Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome.

Hadrian (Publius Aelius Hadrianus), Roman emperor 117–138 B.C.E., was born on January 24, 76 C.E. at Italica in Hispania Bactica (according to others, at Rome), where his ancestors, originally from Hadria in Picenum, had been settled since the time of the Scipios. At the age of fifteen he began a military career, and he quickly moved up the ranks, thanks to his closeness with Trajan, the current emperor, who named Hadrian his successor just before his death.

He was without doubt one of the most capable emperors who ever occupied the throne, and devoted his great and varied talents to the interests of the state. One of his chief objects was the abolition of distinctions between the provinces and the mother country, finally carried out by Caracalla, while at the same time he did not neglect reforms that were urgently called for in Italy. Provincial governors were kept under strict supervision; extortion was practically unheard of; special officials were instituted for the control of the finances; and the emperors interest in provincial affairs was shown by his personal assumption of various municipal offices. New towns were founded and old ones restored; new streets were laid out, and aqueducts, temples and magnificent buildings constructed. In Italy, many changes were made. For example, the administration of the postal service throughout the empire was taken over by the state, and municipal officials were relieved from the burden of maintaining the imperial posts. Human regulations as to the treatment of slaves were strictly enforced, the master was forbidden to put his slave to death, but was obliged to bring him before a court of Justine; if he ill-treated him it was a penal offence. The sale of slaves for immoral or gladiatorial purposes was forbidden. The public baths were kept under strict supervision; the toga was ordered to be worn in public by senators and equites on solemn occasions; extravagant banquets were prohibited; rules were made to prevent the congestion of traffic in the streets. In military matters Hadrian was a strict disciplinarian, but his generosity and readiness to share their hardships endeared him to the soldiers. He effected a material and moral improvement in the conditions of service and mode of life. Among the magnificent buildings erected by Hadrian, the most impressive are the following: in Rome, the temples of Venus and Roma; his splendid mausoleum, which formed the groundwork of the Castel Sant’Angelo; and the pantheon of Agrippa.

Hadrian was fond of the society of learned men – poets, scholars, rhetoricians and philosophers – whom he alternately humoured and ridiculed. In painting, sculpture and music he considered himself the equal of specialists. He was a man of considerable intellectual attainments, of prodigious memory, master of both Latin and Greek, and wrote prose and verse with equal facility.

The character of Hadrian exhibits a mass of contradictions, well summed up by Spartianus: “He was grave and gay, affable and dignified, cruel and gentle, mean and generous, eager for fame yet not vain, impulsive and cautious, secretive and open. He hated eminent qualities in others, but gathered around him the most distinguished men of the state; at one time affectionate toward his friends, at another he mistrusted and put them to death. In fact, he was only consistent in his inconsistency. Although he endeavoured to win the popular favour, he was more feared than loved. A man of unnatural passions and grossly superstitious, he was an ardent lover of nature. But, with all his faults, he devoted himself so indefatigably to the service of the state, that the period of his reign could be characterised as a “golden age.”

117. Portrait of Emperor Antoninus Pius, Roman, c. 15 °C.E. Marble. Staatliche Museen, Dresden.

118. Bust of Antinous, also called the “Mondragone Antinous”, Roman, c. 13 °C.E. Marble, height: 95 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

119. Portrait of Young Faustina Minor, Roman, c. 147–148 C.E. Marble, height: 60 cm. Museo Capitolini, Rome.

Faustina, Annia Galeria, the younger, daughter of Antoninus Pius, and wife of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. She is accused by Dio Cassius and Capitolinus of gross profligacy, and was reputed to have instigated the revolt of Avidius Cassius against her husband. She died in 175 or 176 at Halala, near Mount Taurus, in Cappadocia, whither she had accompanied Aurelius. Charitable schools for orphan girls were founded in her honour, like those established by her father in honour of his wife, the elder Faustina. Her statue was placed in the temple of Venus, and she was numbered among the tutelary deities of Rome. From the fact that Aurelius was always devoted to her and was heartbroken at her death, it has been inferred that the unfavourable estimate of the historians is prejudiced or at least mistaken.

120. Portrait of Two Brothers, Fayum, Egypt, Roman, 2nd century C.E. Distemper painting on wood, diameter: 61 cm. The Egyptian Museum, Cairo.

121. Gilded Mummy Portrait of a Woman, Er-Roubayat, Egypt, Roman, c. 160–17 °C.E. Encaustic on limewood, 44.2 × 20 cm. The British Museum, London.

Discovered in Egypt in 1888 by Flinders Petrie, the portraits of the Fayoum are a series of representations dating back to the first century C.E. They represent the populations that crossed the Fayoum and these images remain an incontrovertible source of information on these civilizations. The hairstyle of the woman depicts the fashion from this epoch; she wears a gold leaf crown, a violet tunic bordered with bands of gold and a white coat. The quality of the portrait, the richness of the jewellery made of precious stones and the beauty of the dress indicates that the woman being represented was part of the upper class in this society.

122. Painted Mummy Cover of a Young Boy, Fayum, Egypt, Roman, 2nd century C.E. Encaustic on wood, 39.1 × 19.1 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

123. Portrait of Caius Julius Pacatianus, Vienne, France, Roman, 2nd century C.E. (body), 3rd century C.E. (head). Bronze, height: 210 cm. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.

Continuing the tradition established by the Etruscans many centuries earlier, this bronze portrait statue represents an elder male, perhaps a statesman. Most likely meant for display in family’s home, or villa, this piece commemorates the “pater familias,” or high-ranking male family member. By the third century, the toga, worn by this figure, was not generally a quotidian garment. Instead, it was worn for ceremonial purposes, and signified the citizenship and importance of the wearer.

124. The Family of Septimius Severus, Roman, 20 °C.E. Tempera on wood, diameter: 30.5 cm. Staaliche Museen zu Berlin, Pergamon Museum, Berlin.

125. Portrait of Caracalla, Roman, 215–217 C.E. Marble, height: 72 cm. Musei Capitolini, Rome.

126. Portrait of Alexander Severus, Roman, 222–235 C.E. White marble, height: 23 cm. Egyptian Museum, Cairo.

127. Bust of Commodus as Hercules, Roman, 180–193 C.E. Marble, height: 133 cm. Musei Capitolini, Rome.

This portrait of the Roman Emperor Commodus shows him in the guise of Heracles, the great hero of myth. Commodus was one of the more deranged and tyrannical emperors, and one of his follies was to imagine himself as Heracles. He changed his name to Heracles Romanus and forced the Senate to declare him a god. This portrait is in some ways typical of the portraiture of the time. It shows the emperor as young and bearded, which was the standard style since Hadrian. His face is given a classicising, elegant appearance, yet the hooded eyes were particular to Commodus and show this to be, at least to some degree, a likeness. The emperor’s hair and beard have finely-chiselled curls. Otherwise, however, the portrait is rather unusual. Commodus is draped in the lion skin worn by Heracles, held in place by the knotted front legs of the beast. He holds Heracles’ club in one hand, and the apples of the Hesperides, from the mythical labours of Heracles, in the other. Other than the lion skin, he is bare-chested, another sign of his supposed divinity.

128. The Elderly Fisherman, or “The Death of Seneca”, Roman, 2nd century C.E. Black marble and alabaster, height: 121 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

129. Head of the Colossal Statue of Constantine, Basilica of Maxentius, Rome, Byzantine, 313–324 C.E. Marble, height: 260 cm. Palazzo dei Conservatori, Musei Capitolini, Rome.

130. Solidus of Constantine, Byzantine, c. 324–326 C.E. Gold, diameter: 3.6 cm. Byzantine Collection, Dumberton Oaks, Washington, D.C.

131. The Tetrarchs: Diocletian, Maxentius, Constantius Chlorus and Galerius, Myrelaion, Constantinople, Byzantine, 4th century C.E. Porphyry. Porta della catra, Basilica di San Marco, Venice.

The third century was a turbulent time in the Roman Empire, with constant civil war and a series of military leaders vying for power. When Diocletian became emperor in 284, he chose to solidify his rule by sharing power with his rivals. He established a tetrarchy, or rule by four. Diocletian took the title of Augustus of the east, with a corresponding Augustus of the west, and secondary rulers of east and west called Caesars. Marriages were arranged among members of the tetrarchs’ families to reinforce the relationships. Although this power arrangement was unusual, it was surprisingly effective, and order was maintained until Diocletian retired, at which point the division between east and west fractured the empire for good. This portrait of the four tetrarchs is notably different than earlier portraits of emperors. The classicising style of depiction has been discarded in favour of the native, plebeian style of art, long seen in pieces such as funerary reliefs, but rarely in imperial monuments. Plebeian art is characterised by the stocky proportions and stylised presentation of the body, as seen here. This style was probably introduced to imperial art via the series of military leaders who served as emperor during the third century, and brought with them the plebeian vernacular.