Читать книгу 1000 Portraits of Genius - Victoria Charles - Страница 4

132. Equestrian Statuette of Charlemagne or Charles the Bald, 9th century. Bronze, formerly gilded, height of rider: 19.5 cm, height of horse: 21 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris. Carolingian.

Historically, the Middle Ages were defined as the period that comprised the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 C.E. and Christopher Columbus’ first steps onto the soil of the New World in 1492. Between these two monumental historical events – one resulting from the slow decadence of an empire that became too vast, and the other, marking symbolically the beginning of great discovery – a thousand years of art. These works were created from a hierarchical society that distinguished itself by its communal spirit, the central importance of the Christian religion and its numerous small territories (with the exception of the Carolinian empire between 800 and 843 when political unity was achieved).

These three important characteristics directly influenced portraiture. It is perfectly valid to question the existence of the portrait during the Middle Ages. In fact, religious debates on iconoclasm that refer to Christianity from the end of Antiquity were amplified during the Byzantine empire during the eighth and ninth centuries. These debates favour the representation of the divine rather than the human form. Outside of this theological problem, we can quickly see that a society where the individual was only recognised by their adherence and function to a group (corporations, feudal systems, religious orders…) did not promote portraiture in their definition of artistic creation. The exception of the Byzantine Empire was notable. Inherited directly from the imperial art of Rome, it prolonged propagandistic art and the diffusion of powerful images through representations of the emperor (Barberini Ivory), his wife and consuls (Consular diptych of Aerobindus) whether it be on coins, mosaics (Leo IV Prostrate Before Christ in Majesty) or carved ivory. These images were meticulously dispersed and controlled. In addition, the goal of these portraits was not to create true representations of the subjects’ physical traits, but more or less to affirm their power and assure their legitimacy.

This courtly style that used the most luxurious materials for its production considerably influenced the art of the Carolinian empire by transmitting its iconographic models (leaked by Byzantine artists who took refuge in Rome at the time of the first iconoclastic crisis). This trend again spread models issued by Greco-roman Antiquity in occidental Europe: what we call the Carolinian Renaissance. Nonetheless, if Byzantium primarily used gold, ivory and silk (samit), the artists in service of Charlemagne preferred the art of the miniature that replaced the architecture that they previously decorated with mosaics and frescoes. Furthermore, Byzantine art was unipolar, centralised in Constantinople, whereas Carolinian art was multipolar. The models were, of course, created under the exclusive control of the sovereign, but they were later shared and reproduced in monastic schools and studios throughout the territories. The great creative centres at the time were Aix-la-Chapelle (Saint Matthew), Tours, Reims (Saint Mark and Saint Matthew of Ebbon) and Metz.

The Treaty of Verdun in 848 instigated a division of the imperial territory between the three sons of the sovereign had large consequences on the workshops founded by Charlemagne. If their activities had been prolonged at least until the beginning of the tenth century, they would have been detached from the central power and develop different original pre-Romanesque styles. With the collapse of the Roman Empire, numerous different territories were formed with the effect being a multitude of new regional styles. The artistic poles kept their big Carolinian abbeys but, at the same time, bore a major Catholic reform movement indicating new rigorous laws in terms of the decoration of religious buildings. The décor was then reduced to the simplest expression possible (Lombard band, blind arcades…) and the illuminated manuscripts only presented dropped initials or organic border décor, sometimes stylised animal motifs were used as well. Therefore, the portrait or even a simple human representation was basically absent from the architectural ornamentation. It wasn’t until the Romanesque period beginning in the eleventh century when the human figure was again present in the artistic domain, principally in sculpture. These relief sculptures principally decorated the façades of large and rich abbeys that were found during the pilgrimage of Saint James of Compostella (the Paths of Saint James) that conserved numerous reliquaries of popular saints like the Cluny, the Sainte Foy Abbey, the Autun Cathedral, the Saint Pierre Abbey in Moissac, the Vézelay Abbey… Even if man or, rather, God and the saints reappeared as the subjects of painting and sculpture, the term “portraiture” was still nonexistent. But it would be apprenticed not to consider these new forms that mark a return to narrative art. Monumental (Head of a Prophet, west façade, Saint Denis Abbey Church) and mobile (Reliquary Statue of Saint Foy) sculpture as well as illuminated manuscripts are the principal forms of art that saw the development of these representations.

The first forms of gothic art developed at the Saint Denis Cathedral around 1140 (inauguration of the rose window on the western façade) chiefly under the influence of Suger, counsellor to Louis VI and regent of the kingdom during the second crusade (1147–1149) in which Louis VII participated. Opposed to the austerity and asceticism of his contemporary, Bernard de Clairvaux, he stated in his De Administratione that the theology of the Enlightenment would serve as the guide to the edification of European gothic cathedrals. One of the central principals of this doctrine associated divine light and physical light, the latter which was perceived as a manifestation of the divinity. This is why stained glass windows and their iconography would become more and more important: the light coming through the windows was charged with symbolism, transforming into divine light that pours over its followers. It was on a stained glass window in the ambulatory of the Saint Denis abbey church that we see the portrait reappear; Suger is depicted at the feet of Christ. Monumental, funerary sculpture and sumptuous objects again became the support of human representations. Their style evolved progressively toward softer poses (Virgin with Child called Jeanne d’Evreux), a better appropriation of space and a more assertive naturalism (double portrait of Charles V and Jeanne de Bourbon).

While the altarpiece became the most common décor for the church, painting was not exempt from this movement. The international gothic style developed parallel to the evolution of spiritual Christianity. In fact, the trend of the Devotio moderna born in the Pays-Bas which dispersed thanks to the writings of Thomas à Kempis (Imitation of Christ) who preached the personal exercise of faith, an internal quest contrary to the communion of advocated followers. In addition, the contemplation of saintly images took a central part in this doctrine. It was a supported trend by the city bourgeois, to personalise the individual and their devotion to Christ, encouraging the production of the portrait and proclaiming the humanism of the Renaissance.

133. Christ Pantocrator, 1148. Mosaic. Cefalu Cathedral, Sicily. Byzantine.

134. Bust of Arcadius Wearing the Imperial Diadem, Roman, early 5th century C.E. Marble. Arkeoloji Müzesi, Istanbul.

135. Bust Portrait of Eutropius, Roman, mid-5th century C.E. Marble, height: 30.5 cm. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.

A Roman historian, Eutropius flourished in the latter half of the fourth century C.E. He held the office of secretary (magister memoriae) at Constantinople, accompanied Julian on his expedition against the Persians (363), and was alive during the reign of Valens (364–378), to whom he dedicates his history. This work (Breviarium historae Romanae) is a complete compendium, in ten books, of Roman history from the foundation of the city to the accession of Valens. It was compiled with considerable care from the best accessible authorities, and is written generally with impartiality, and in a clear and simple style. Although the Latin in some instances differs from that of the purest models, the work was for a long time a favourite elementary schoolbook. Its independent value is small, but it sometimes fills a gap left by the more authoritative records.

136. Procession of the Martyrs, 493–526 C.E. Mosaic, Basilica of Sant’Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna. Byzantine.

137. The Good Shepherd (detail), c. 44 °C.E. Mosaic, Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna. Byzantine.

138. Justinian and His Retinue, 546 C.E. Mosaic, Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna. Byzantine.

Located on the interior walls of the San Vitale Basilica in Ravenna, this mosaic is a pertinent example to the Byzantine style. The Emperor Justinian is clothed in purple and his head is surrounded with a halo, a similar attribute to that of the Christ at the top of the dome. He stands at the centre of the compositions with his soldiers and army at his left while the clergymen are at his right. This detail emphasizes that he was the leader of both the church and the state in his empire. In his hands he holds a paten and is seen with a beard to show that he was too busy performing his duties as ruler to shave. The gold background, an important symbolic colour that suggests an infinity taken out of mortal time on which supernatural images float, shows that the setting of the mosaic is inside a church. The structure shows that the figures are standing in a V-shape formation with Justinian at the front and centre with the Bishop Maximian at his left. This structure can be seen by the overlapping details of the feet with the individuals of lesser importance standing in the back.

139. Empress Theodora and Her Attendants, c. 547 C.E. Mosaic, Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna. Byzantine.

140. Plague from the Diptych of Consul Aerobindus, c. 506 C.E. Ivory, 39 × 13 cm. Musée national du Moyen Age-Thermes et hôtel de Cluny, Paris. Early Christian.

141. Ariadne and Her Cortege, early 6th century. Ivory, 40 × 14 cm. Musée national du Moyen Age-Thermes et hôtel de Cluny, Paris. Byzantine.

142. The Emperor Triumphant (Justinian?), from the Barberini Ivory, diptych panel in five parts, first half of the 6th century. Ivory and traces of inlay, 34.2 × 26.8 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris. Byzantine.

143. Codex Purpureus Rossanensis (Rossano Gospels), the Judgement of Pilate, 6th century. Painting on parchment, 31 × 26 cm. Cathedral Treasury, Rossano. Byzantine.

144. Christ Pantocrator, 6th century. Encaustic on wood, 84 × 45.5 cm. Saint Catherine’s Monastery, Mount Sinai. Byzantine.

145. Virgin and Child Enthroned between Saints and Angels, late 6th century C.E. Encaustic on wood, 68.5 × 49.2 cm. Monastery of St. Catherine, Mount Sinai. Byzantine.

146. St. Peter, early 7th century. Encaustic on wood, 93 × 53 cm. St. Catherine’s Monastery, Mount Sinai. Byzantine.

147. Saint Sergius and Saint Bacchus, 7th century. Bohdan and Varvara Khanenko Museum of Art, Museum of Western and Oriental Art, Kiev. Byzantine.

148. Saint Luke, 75 °C.E. Illustrated manuscript. Abbey Library of St. Gall, St. Gallen. Pre-Romanesque.

Saint Luke is the assumed author of the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles. The four evangelists are normally shown together with their prospective attributes. Luke was known as a physician, historian and even painter who is believed to have painted the first image of the Virgin Mary and the baby Jesus, although now this fact is most likely untrue. Because of this tradition, however, he is considered a patron of painters of pictures and is often portrayed as painting pictures of Mary. He is also shown in his animal form – an ox or a calf – because it is the symbol of sacrifice, which alludes to Jesus’ sacrifice for the world.

149. Saint Matthew, c. 80 °C.E. Parchment, Albertina, Vienna. Romanesque.

One of the twelve apostles, and the traditional author of the First Gospel, where Matthew is described as having been a tax-gatherer or customs-officer, in the service of the tetrarch Herod. His call to become a follower of Jesus was received as he sat in the “customs house” in one of the towns by the Sea of Galilee. He was at the time known as “Levi the son of Alphaeus.” Possibly “Matthew” was his Christian surname, since two native names, neither being a patronymic, is contrary to Jewish usage. It must be noted, however, that Matthew and Levi were sometimes distinguished in early times. It has generally been supposed, on the strength of Luke’s account, that Matthew gave a feast in Jesus’ honour. But Mark, followed by Matthew, may mean that the meal in question was one in Jesus’ own home at Capernaum. In the lists of the Apostles given in the Synoptic Gospels and in Acts, Matthew ranks third or fourth in the second group of four – a fair index of his relative importance in the apostolic age. The only other facts related of Matthew on good authority concern him as an Evangelist. Eusebius says that he, like John, wrote only at the spur of necessity. “For Matthew, after preaching to Hebrews, when about to go also to others, committed to writing in his native tongue the Gospel that bears his name; and so by his writing supplied, for those whom he was leaving, the loss of his presence.” The value of this tradition, which may be based on Papias, who certainly reported that “Matthew compiled the Oracles (of the Lord) in Hebrew,” can be estimated only in connexion with the study of the Gospel itself. The earliest legend as to his later labours, one of Syrian origin, places them in the Parthian kingdom, where it represents him as dying a natural death at Hierapolis. This agrees with his legend as known to Ambrose and Paulinus of Nola, and is the most probably in itself. Another legend, his Martyrium, makes him labour and suffer in Mysore. He is commemorated as a martyr by the Greek Church on the 16th of November, and by the Roman on the 21st of September, the scene of his martyrdom being placed in Ethiopia. The Latin Breviary also affirms that his body was afterwards translated to Salerno, where it is said to lie in the church built by Robert Guiscard.

150. St. Mark, from a Gospel Book of Archbishop Ebbo of Reims, 816–835 C.E. Ink on vellum, 18 × 14 cm. Bibliothèque Municipale, Épernay. Carolingian.

151. Saint Matthew, c. 83 °C.E. Bibliothèque Municipale, Épernay. Romanesque.

152. Portrait of Emperor Lothair, c. 80 °C.E. Miniature from Ms. 37768, fol. 4. British Library, London. Carolingian.

Lothair I, the eldest son of Lois the Pious, ruled as an Emperor of the Romans from 817–855. Several civil wars occurred during his reign as emperor which resulted in the dissolution of the Frankish Empire.

153. Leo VI Prostrate Before Christ in Majesty, 886–912. Mosaic. Hagia Sophia, Istanbul. Byzantine.

This large mosaic located in the Hagia Sophia Basilica in Turkey depicts Jesus sitting on a magnificent celestial throne with his right hand raised in a gesture of blessing while his left hand holds an open book bearing the inscription: “Peace Be With You, I Am The Light of The World.” There are two roundels on either side of the figure of Christ, one with a portrait of the Virgin Mary and the other with a portrait of the angel Gabriel. In this image Jesus is portrayed as the Christ Pantocrator or the King of the World. He is dressed in different white fabrics and his prominent features resemble those of Zeus, the king of Gods in Greek mythology. The emperor prostrate is shown bearded and kneeling at the left of Jesus. Not only is the emperor kneeling in act of complete humility, he is also depicted as begging for Christ’s forgiveness – an unusual detail in Byzantine iconography.

154. Christ Enthroned, Homilies of St. Gregory of Nazianzus, 867–886. Manuscript. Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. Byzantine.

155. Virgin and Child, 9th century. Mosaic. Hagia Sophia, Istanbul. Byzantine.

156. Emperor Otto III Receiving Homage from the Provinces, 997-1000. Ink on vellum, 334 × 243 cm. Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich. Carolingian.

The Emperor Otto III was proclaimed king of Germany in Verona in 983 at the age of three, and he was crowned in Aachen at the end of that same year. This portrait is part of a series called the Gospels of Otto III (a tenth or eleventh century illuminated gospel book). This manuscript contains early fifth century adaptations of the four gospels and is a major example of Ottonian art. It is in the pre-Romanesque, Byzantine style which is reflected by the dynasty’s desire to visually establish a link with the Christian rulers form late Antiquity. These portraits normally include different stylistic elements such as province personifications or representatives of the military and the church surrounding the emperor – an important detail that is part of a lengthy imperial history.

157. Icon of Saint Eudokia, 10th century. Inlaid marble, 67 × 28 cm. Archaeological Museum, Vienna. Byzantine.

158. Portrait of Egbert, from the Psalter of Egbert, Archbishop of Trier, c. 980. Ink on vellum, 21 × 27 cm. Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Cividale del Friuli. Carolingian.

159. Saint Nicholas, 10th century. Tempera and gold leaf on panel, 43.3 × 33.1 cm. Saint Catherine’s Monastery, Mount Sinai. Byzantine.

160. Angel, second half of the 11th century. Fresco. La basilica di Sant’Angelo in Formis, Capua. Byzantine.

161. The Archangel Michael, 11th century. Enamel and precious stones, height: 46 cm. Basilico di San Marco, Venice. Byzantine.

The Archangel Michael is one of the most celebrated angels and bodiless powers in the Christian religion. According to different scriptures he has interceded on behalf of humanity multiple times and is still considered as the Defender of the Faith. In scriptural history he has most often been invoked for protection from invasion of enemies, from civil war and to defeat adversaries on the battle field. Michael first appears in the Old Testament in the account of the Fall of Jericho and later in the New Testament brings salvation to the Church at Colossae, one of his most famous miracles. He is also associated with healing and has three iconic identities: the mantamados, the panormitis and the nenita.

162. Saint Mark, 11th century. Icon, 24 × 18.5 cm. Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna. Byzantine.

163. Saint George (double-sided icon), late 11th to early 12th century. Tempera on lime wood, 174 × 122 cm. The State Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow. Byzantine.

164. Orant Virgin, 1140. Mosaic. Church of Santa Maria e San Donato, Murano. Byzantine.

165. The Raising of Lazarus (detail), c. 1150. Mosaic. Cappella Palatina, Palermo. Byzantine.

166. Emperor John II Comnenus, c. 1110–1118. Marble, diameter: 90 cm. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington D.C. Byzantine.

167. Head of a Prophet, west façade, Saint-Denis Abbey Church, Saint-Denis, c. 1137–1140. Limestone, height: 41 cm. Musée national du Moyen Age-Thermes et hôtel de Cluny, Paris. Romanesque.

168. Head of an Old Testament Queen (Saba) from Saint-Denis Abbey Church, c. 1137–1140. Limestone, height: 36.5 cm. Musée national du Moyen Age-Thermes et hôtel de Cluny, Paris. Romanesque.

This sculpture relief from the west side of the Saint Denis Cathedral in Paris was most likely commissioned by Suger in the mid-twelfth century and it is thought to be a representation of the Queen of Sheba. The different stylistic attributes are similar to that of the sculpture relief at the Autun Cathedral in Burgundy. The stylistic features include deeply bored pupils, undulating strands of hair as well as a crown with a border enhanced by a strand of pearl set with cabochons. The head is set into a headband on each side of the centre parting of the hair which falls into narrow hair strands surrounding the face. Her bulging eyes protrude from narrow eyelids and are set into deep sockets emphasizing the eyebrows. The nose is straight and her lips are clearly defined. Although the sculpture is broken on the right side from the mid section of the crown, its aesthetic strength still remains untouched.

169. Virgin of Montserrat, also known as La Morneta, early 12th century. Wood. Abbey of Santa Maria, Montserrat. Romanesque.

170. Virgin from Ger, second half of the 12th century. Wood carving with polychrome in tempera and stucco reliefs, 51.8 × 20.5 × 14.5 cm. Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona. Romanesque.

171. Madonna with Child, c. 1170. Walnut, silver and gilded silver, height: 74 cm. Notre Dame Church, Orchival. Romanesque.

172. Angel (from the decoration of sacred tombs), c. 1180. Wood, height: 62 cm. Stiftung Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin. Romanesque.

173. Three Kings and One Queen of the Old Testament, jamb figures, right side of wall of the west portal called “Royal Gate”, 1145–1155. Notre-Dame Cathedral, Chartres. Gothic.

These still, columnar figures are ranged on either side of each of the three doors of the “Royal Gate” of Chartres Cathedral, as if forming a receiving line, welcoming those who enter the sanctuary. While their elongated proportions and stylised drapery tie them to the sculpture of the Romanesque period (see no. 213), their placement is new. The two churches that revolutionised the Gothic style, Saint-Denis and Chartres, both employed sculpted figures on the columns of the door jambs. These figures do not replace the columns, as did the caryatids of the classical world (see no. 71); instead, they are affixed to the front of the column. Each figure is a king or queen of the Old Testament, and together they give the entryway the name “The Royal Portal”.

These gentle-looking kings and queens symbolise the base that was the Old Testament, on which Christ and the events of the New Testament would rest.

174. Recumbent Statues of Richard the Lionheart and Alienor of Aquitaine, early 12th century. Stone. Abbay de Fontevraud, Fontevraud. Romanesque.

175. Henry the II Plantagenet, c. 1189. Stone. Abbay de Fontevraud, Fontevraud. Romanesque.

176. The Archangel Gabriel (The Golden-Haired Angel), 12th century. The State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg. Romanesque.

177. Bust of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, c. 1155–1160. Gilt bronze, height: 32 cm. Collegiate Church of Saint Johannes, Cappenberg. Romanesque.

178. Self-portrait of the Stained Glass Painter Gerlachus, c. 1150–1160. Stained glass. Westphalian State Museum of Art and Cultural History, Münster. Gothic.

The stained glass window that portrays one of the first self-portraits from the Middle Ages, that of Gerlachus in the Arnstein Cathedral in Germany. The image depicts the master glazer with a beard and moustache in a sky blue coloured coat with a paint brush in his right hand and a bowl of paint in his left. The panel also represents different scenes from the life of Moses using complex glazing and painting techniques. The signature at the bottom of the panel reads: REX REGUM CLARE GERLACHO PROPICIARE which makes the identity of the creator unquestionable. Gerlacho has also been attributed to The Crucifixion stained glass window that was located in the Kaiser Friederich Cathedral in Berlin, which was unfortunately destroyed in 1945. The artist was well known for his use of glazing and pictorial techniques that were both elegant and decorative.

179. Virgin at the Calvary, 1220–1230. Painted wood, height: 170 cm. Musée national du Moyen Age-Thermes et hôtel de Cluny, Paris. Gothic.

These large figures were originally part of a group depicting Christ’s descent from the Cross. Early Gothic art displayed more pathos than art of the previous period; the sadness of these figures reflects the human tragedy of the event as well as the divine importance. Virtually life-size and brightly painted, the figures, in their original group, would have lent an intimate immediacy to the Biblical story to anyone viewing the sculptures.

180. St. John at the Calvary, c. 1220–1230. Painted wood, height: 170 cm. Musée national du Moyen Age-Thermes et hôtel de Cluny, Paris. Gothic.

181. The Prophet Hosea from the Book of Prophets, c. 1220. Illuminated Manuscript. Weingarten Abbey, Weingarten. Gothic.

182. God the Father Measures the World from the Vienna Moralized Bible, (Cod. 2554, f 1 r), 1250. Illuminated manuscript. Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna. Gothic.

183. Our Lady of the Great Panagia, first third of the 13th century. Tempera on lime wood, 193.2 × 120.5 cm. The State Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow. Gothic.

This icon was discovered in 1919 in a warehouse of the Saint-Savior Monastery in Taroslav. Dated from the early twelfth century, it is representative of the Kievan School. Active from the first Christianization of Russian to the Mongol invasion and the sack of Kiev in 1240, the School of Kiev relied at first upon the Byzantine models. But soon, they developed their own style, offering to the faithful a more forgiving and understanding image of the religion. In this way, the Virgin Mary played the main part as an intercessor between men and God.

184. Madonna di Acuto, c. 1210. Polychrome wood with semi-precious stones, height: 109 cm. Museo di Palazzo di Venezia, Rome. Romanesque.

185. Holy Elizabeth, second pillar of the northern side of the Saint George’s Chancel, 1225–1237. Bamberg Cathedral, Bamberg. Gothic.

186. Horseman of the Alter Markt (The Emperor Otto I?), c. 1245–1250. Kulturhistorisches Museum, Magdeburg. Gothic.

In a dramatic departure from earlier Gothic art, such as the Bamberg Rider (see no. 195), this equestrian statue is entirely free-standing. Not intended to decorate a church, the statue was conceived of as a distinct, separate work of art, set up in the city’s market. Made of stone, it probably depicts King Otto I, the tenth-century Holy Roman Emperor and founder of the Ottonian dynasty. Otto I lived in Magdeburg and was buried in the city’s cathedral, and so is closely associated with Magdeburg’s history. In the thirteenth century, when the statue was carved, Magdeburg was still an important city and played a key role in regional trade networks. While it is innovative in its conception as a free-standing sculpture, the horseman lacks the grace and artistry of the Bamberg Rider.

187. Wistful Apostle, Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, 1241–1248. Stone, height: 165 cm. Musée national du Moyen Age-Thermes et hôtel de Cluny, Paris. Gothic.

188. Adam (from the south-side of the Notre-Dame transept), c. 1260. Polychrome stone, height: 200 cm. Musée national de Moyen Age-Thermes hôtel de Cluny, Paris (Paris). Gothic.

189. Pietro Cavallini, c. 1250–1330, Seated Apostles (detail), from The Last Judgement, c. 1290. Fresco, Sta. Cecilia in Trastevere, Rome. Gothic.

190. Christ Pantocrator, 12th century. Mosaic, Hagia Sophia, Istanbul. Byzantine.

191. The Man of Sorrows from the Umbrian Diptych, 1260. Tempera on panel, 32.4 × 22.8 cm. National Gallery, London. Umbrian.

192. Tomb of Henry the Lion and Mathilda of England. St. Blasius Cathedral, Brauschweig. Gothic.

The Brunswick Cathedral was commissioned and built by Henry the Lion from 1173 to 1195 and is dedicated specifically to the Saint Blaise, John the Baptist and Thomas Becket. The cathedral was originally founded as a collegiate church and was consecrated on December 29, 1226. The construction was interrupted numerous times during the various different exiles of Henry the Lion, therefore, he and his second wife Matilda, Duchess of Saxony were buried in an unfinished cathedral. The tomb is located in the nave of the cathedral and the limestone recumbent statues are idealized representations of the king and queen that were created almost half a decade after their deaths between 1230 and 1240.

193. Virgin, c. 1250. Sandstone with paint, height: 148.6 × 47 cm. The Cloisters Collection, New York City. Gothic.

194. Icon of St. George and the Youth of Mytilene, middle of the 13th century. Silver, linen, and tempera on pine, 18.8 × 26.8 cm. The British Museum, London. Byzantine.

195. King on a Horse called “The Bamberg Rider”, first pillar on the northern face of the chancel, before 1237. Stone, height: 233 cm. Bamberg Cathedral, Bamberg. Gothic.

196. Statues of the Founders Ekkehard and Uta, eastern chancel, c. 1260–1270. Naumburg Cathedral, Naumburg. Gothic.

The traces of paint and gilding that survive on this sculpted pair add to their lifelikeness. Count Ekkehard stands proudly, covered by a long cloak and carrying a sword and shield. Countess Uta gazes off in the same direction as Ekkehard, her expression strong and noble. She gathers her cape against her face as if to ward off the cold. Through the drape of the cape, the bend of her arm is visible. Her crown sparkles on her head. The pair is affixed to pillars in a chapel in the choir of the Naumburg Cathedral. Ekkehard and Uta were patrons of the Cathedral who lived in the eleventh century, long before these images were carved. Nevertheless, the sculptures have a remarkably portrait-like quality, suggesting that the sculptor carved them to resemble actual models.

197, 198. Jean de Liège (1361–1381), French, Recumbent Statues of Charles IV the Fair and Jeanne d’Evreux, second half of the 13th century. Marble, 135 × 36 × 16 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris. Gothic.

This pair of effigy statues comes from the Cistercian abbey church of Maubuisson in France. Queen Jeanne d’Evreux commissioned the pieces before her death. The statues are only about half life-size; their small size is due to the type of tomb they surmount. Called an “entrail tomb,” it was designed to hold only the entrails of the king and queen. Each figure is shown holding a small bag that would have contained the entrails. In parts of France, such as Normandy and Ile-de-France, there was a long-standing custom among aristocratic families, especially the Royal Family, to have multiple tombs for different parts of the body. The body would be eviscerated upon death, and the entrails, or heart, would be destined for one tomb, the bones for another.

199. Head of a King from the Old Testament, c. 1230. Fragment of a statue from the façade of Notre-Dame de Paris. Stone, height: 65 cm. Musée national de Moyen Age-Thermes hôtel de Cluny, Paris. Gothic.

200. St. Blaise of Namur, c. 1300. Chased gold statuette, height: 38 cm. Musée Diocésain, Namur. Gothic.

201, 202. Pair of Altar Angels, end of the 13th century. Oak with traces of polychrome, 75 × 17.8 cm. The Cloisters Collection, New York. Gothic.

203. Simone Martini (c. 1284–1344), Italian, Saint Louis of Toulouse, c. 1317. Tempera on wood, 250 × 188 cm. Museo e Gallerie Nazionali di Capodimonte, Naples. Late Medieval.

204. Simone Martini (c. 1284–1344), Italian, Madonna of the Misericordia, 13th century. Tempera on wood, 154 × 84 cm. Pinacoteca, Siena. Late Medieval.

Simone Martini

(1284 Siena – 1344 Avignon)

A Sienese painter, he was a student of Duccio. Influenced by his master and by the sculptures of Giovanni Pisano, he was even more influenced by French Gothic art. First painting in Sienna, he worked as a court painter for the French Kingdom in Naples where he started to incorporate non-religious characters in his paintings. Then he worked in Assisi and Florence where he painted with his brother-in-law Lippo Memmi.

In 1340-41 Simone Martini went to Avignon in France, where he met Petrarch, illustrating a Virgil codex for him. His last works were created in Avignon where he died. Simone Martini gave a great sweetness to his religious compositions while, at the same time, he was the first who dared to employ his art for purposes not wholly religious.

205. Cenni di Pepo (also called Cimabue) (1240–1302),

Italian, The Madonna and Child in Majesty

Surrounded by Angels, c. 1280. Tempera on wood panel,

4.27 × 2.8 m. Musée du Louvre, Paris. Late Medieval.

Cimabue (Cenni di Pepo)

(C.1240 FLORENCE – 1302 PISA)

After learning the art of making mosaics in Florence, Cimabue developed in the medieval Byzantine style, advancing towards more realism. He became the first Florentine master. Some of his works were monumental. His most famous student was Giotto. He painted several versions of the Maestà, “majesty, enthroned in glory”, traditionally referring to Mary in setting, that show some human emotions, such as Madonna and Child Enthroned with Angels and Prophets.

206. Franciscan Crib with the Madonna del Latte (detail), 14th century. Fresco. Santuario di S. Francesco, Greccio.

207. Peasant on a Horse (sculpture from The Twelve Month Cycle), c. 13th or 14th century. Stone. Baptistery of Parma, Parma. Romanesque.

208. Giotto di Bondone (1267–1337), Italian, Faith, c. 1305. Fresco, Cappella Santa Maria dell’Arena, Padua. Late Medieval.

Giotto di Bondone

(1267 VESPIGNANO – 1337 FLORENCE)

His full name was Ambrogiotto di Bondone, but he is known today, as he was in his own time, by the contraction, Giotto, a word which has come to stand for almost all the great things that art has accomplished. In his own day Giotto’s fame as a painter was supreme; he had numerous followers, and these Giotteschi, as they were styled, perpetuated his methods for nearly a hundred years. In 1334, he designed the beautiful Campanile (bell tower), which stands beside the cathedral in Florence, and represents a perfect union of strength and elegance, and was partly erected in his lifetime. Moreover, the sculptured reliefs which decorate its lower part were all from his designs, though he lived to execute only two of them. Inspired by French Gothic sculpture, he abandoned the stiff presentations of the subjects as in Byzantine styles and advanced art towards more realistic presentation of contemporary figures and scenes so as to be more narrative. His breakthrough influenced subsequent development in Italian art. His significant departure from past presentations of the Maestà, starting around 1308 (in Madonna di Ognissanti), brought to it his knowledge of architecture and its perspectives. However, the disproportion of subjects in the presentation is a device intended to rank the subjects by their importance, as was done in Byzantine icons. Thus, architect, sculptor, painter, friend of Dante and of other great men of his day, Giotto was the worthy forerunner of that galaxy of brilliant men who populated the later days of the Italian Renaissance.

209, 210. Charles V and Jeanne of Bourbon, 1365–1380. Stone, 194 × 50 × 44 cm and 195 × 71 × 40 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris. Gothic.