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1.

Cooper, Kristy. (2013). Eliciting engagement in the high school classroom: A mixed-methods examination of teaching practices. American Educational Research Journal, 51(2), 363–402; Fredricks, Jennifer A., Blumenfeld, Phyllis C., & Paris, Alison H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74(1), 59–109; Martin, Andrew J., & Dowson, Martin. (2009). Interpersonal relationships, motivation, engagement, and achievement: Yields for theory, current issues, and educational practice. Review of Educational Research, 79(1), 327–365; Schonert-Reichl, Kimberly. (2017). Social and emotional learning and teachers. The Future of Children 27(1). Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1145076.pdf; Sosa, Teresa, & Gomez, Kimberley. (2012). Connecting teacher efficacy beliefs in promoting resilience to support of Latino students. Urban Education, 47(5), 876–909.

2.

I use the term “race” throughout this text to indicate a social construct, not a biological reality, that has a weighty meaning in the United States in particular. Race in this context is often seen as a binary, either white or nonwhite, with the latter associated with historical legacies of oppression and the former with privilege and supremacy. These ideas are so deeply embedded into the culture that skin color alone can trigger a slew of assumptions about a person, especially by white people, who happen to represent the majority of the teaching force. And because skin color is so apparent, this perceived signifier of difference will be the one I focus on most throughout this book.

3.

Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. (2014). Racism without racists: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in America. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

4.

Sleeter, Christine. (2008). Preparing white teachers for diverse students. Handbook of Research on Teacher Education: Enduring Questions in Changing Contexts, 3, 559–582; Picower, B. (2009). The unexamined whiteness of teaching: How white teachers maintain and enact dominant racial ideologies. Race Ethnicity and Education, 12(2), 197–215; Matias, C., & Zembylas, M. (2014). “When saying you care is not really caring”: Emotions of disgust, whiteness ideology, and teacher education. Critical Studies in Education, 55(3), 319–337; Hyland, N. (2005). Being a good teacher of black students? White teachers and unintentional racism. Curriculum Inquiry, 35(4), 429–459.

5.

Ingersoll, Richard, & Merrill, Lisa. (2014). Seven trends: The transformation of the teaching force. Philadelphia, PA: Consortium for Policy Research in Education.

6.

Grossman, Pam, & McDonald, Morva. (2008). Back to the future: Directions for research in teaching and teacher education. American Educational Research Journal, 45(1), 184–205.

7.

See, for example, Gay, Geneva. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, & practice. New York, NY: Teachers College Press; Schultz, Katherine. (2003). Listening: A framework for teaching across differences. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

8.

Ladson-Billings, Gloria. (1994). Dreamkeepers: Successful teachers of African American children. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; Valenzuela, Angela. (1999). Subtractive schooling: U.S.–Mexican youth and the politics of caring. New York, NY: SUNY Press.

9.

For example, Brinkworth, Maureen, McIntyre, Joseph, Juraschek, Anna D., & Gehlbach, Hunter. (2017). Teacher–student relationships: The positives and negatives of assessing both perspectives. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 55, 24–38; Cooper, Eliciting engagement; Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, School engagement; Gehlbach, Hunter, Brinkworth, Maureen E., & Harris, Anna D. (2012). Changes in teacher–student relationships. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(4), 690–704; Martin & Dowson, Interpersonal relationships.

10.

Grossman & McDonald, Back to the future; McDonald, Morva A., Bowman, Michael, & Brayko, Kate. (2013, April). Learning to see students: Opportunities to develop relational practices of teaching through community based placements in teacher education. Teachers College Record, 115, 1–35.

11.

See, for example, Ball, Deborah Loewenberg. (2000). Bridging practices: Intertwining content and pedagogy in teaching and learning to teach. Journal of Teacher Education, 51(3), 241–247; Clark, Christopher, & Lampert, Magdalene. (1986). The study of teacher thinking: Implications for teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 37(5), 27–31; Lampert, Magdalene. (2001). Teaching problems and the problems of teaching. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press; Saphier, Jon, & Gower, Robert R. (1997). The skillful teacher: Building your teaching skills. Acton, MA: Research for Better Teaching.

12.

Lee, Carol. (2017). Opportunity and equity inside classrooms: Teacher–child relationships and educational success. Invited speaker session presented at the American Educational Research Association, San Antonio, TX.

13.

Lortie, Dan C. (1975). Schoolteacher: A sociological study. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

14.

Buber, Martin. (1958). I and thou. New York, NY: Scribner & Sons.

15.

Brooks, David. (2016, November 1). Read Buber, not the polls. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/01/opinion/read-buber-not-the-polls.html

16.

Guilherme, Alex, & Morgan, W. John. (2009). Martin Buber’s philosophy of education and its implications for adult non-formal education. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 28(5), 565–581.

17.

Buber, Martin. (1965). Between man and man. London, England: Routledge, p. 95.

18.

Buber, Between man and man, p. 91

19.

Freire, Paulo. (1973). Education for critical consciousness. New York, NY: Continuum, p. 45.

20.

Freire, Education for critical consciousness, p. 52.

21.

See Freire, Paulo. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, NY: Continuum.

22.

Noddings, Nel. (1984). Caring: A feminine approach to ethics & moral education. Berkeley: University of California Press, p. 21.

23.

Noddings, Nel. (2013). Freire, Buber, and care ethics on dialogue in teaching. In R. Lake & T. Kress (Eds.), Paulo Freire’s intellectual roots: Toward historicity in praxis. New York, NY: Bloomsbury.

24.

See Freire, Pedagogy of the oppressed; Freire, Education for critical consciousness; Freire, Paulo. (1998). Pedagogy of freedom: Ethics, democracy, and civic courage. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield; Noddings (1992), Caring; Noddings (2013), Freire, Buber, and care ethics on dialogue in teaching.

25.

Duncan-Andrade, Jeff. (2007). Gangstas, wankstas, and ridas: Defining, developing, andsupporting effective teachers in urban schools. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 20(6), 617–638; Duncan-Andrade, J. M. R., & Morrell, E. (2008). The art of critical pedagogy: Possibilities for moving from theory to practice in urban schools. New York, NY: Peter Lang; Gay, Culturally responsive teaching; Ladson-Billings, Dreamkeepers; Valenzuela, Subtractive schooling; Villegas, Ana María, & Lucas, Tamara. (2002). Preparing culturally responsive teachers: Rethinking the curriculum. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(1), 20–32.

26.

Also see Victoria Theisen-Homer (2020), Preparing teachers for relationships with students: Two visions, two approaches, Journal of Teacher Education for a more succinct presentation of this theoretical framing.

27.

Papay, John P., West, Martin R., Fullerton, Jon B., & Kane, Thomas J. (2012). Does an urban teacher residency increase student achievement? Early evidence from Boston. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 34(4), 413–434.

28.

Berry, Barnett, Montgomery, Diana, & Snyder, Jon. (2008). Urban teacher residency models and institutes of higher education: Implications for teacher preparation. Chapel Hill, NC: Center for Teaching Quality; Solomon, Jesse. (2009). The Boston teacher residency: District-based teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 60(5), 478–488.

29.

For example, Guha, R., Hyler, M. & Darling-Hammond, L. (2016). The teacher residency: An innovative model for preparing teachers. Palo Alto, CA: Learning Policy Institute; Papay, West, Fullerton, & Kane, Does an urban teacher residency increase student achievement?; Solomon, The Boston teacher residency.

30.

I use pseudonyms to anonymize the names of the programs and participants throughout this book.

31.

I have decided not to capitalize “no excuses” throughout this book for a few reasons. First, progressive education is rarely capitalized, and the term “no excuses education” has become almost as ubiquitous. Second, I wanted to distinguish No Excuses Teacher Residency with capitalization. Third, capitalizing the phrase makes it seem more like a universal brand than it is; today, there are a number of different no excuses schools and while they share a number of common characteristics, there is notable variation between them.

32.

Feiman-Nemser, Sharon, Tamir, Eran, & Hammerness, Karen. (2015). Inspiring teaching:Preparing teachers to succeed in mission-driven schools. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

33.

By context in this study, I mean the character and culture of each program and the people implementing the work in this space.

34.

Sleeter, Preparing white teachers.

35.

Dewey, John. (1900). The School and society. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

36.

Graham, Patricia A. (2005). Schooling America. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, p. 53.

37.

Mehta, Jal, & Fine, Sarah. (2019). In search of deeper learning: Inside the effort to remake the American high school. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

38.

Despite calls to reframe this as an “opportunity gap” or “education debt,” no excuses schools continue to focus on student achievement as the main problem; thus their solution is not on addressing a society that deprives them of opportunities, but of attempting to improve their individual achievement. For more on “opportunity gap” and “education debt,” see Ladson-Billings, Gloria. (2006). From the achievement gap to the education debt: Understanding achievement in U.S. schools. Educational Researcher, 35(7), 3–12.

39.

Whitman, David. (2008). Sweating the small stuff: Inner-city schools and the new paternalism. Washington, DC: Thomas B. Fordham Institute.

40.

See Whitman, Sweating the small stuff; Mehta & Fine, In search of deeper learning.