Читать книгу Mendeleyev. Shostakovich. Blok - Владимир Окрепилов, В. В. Окрепилов, Виталий Дмитриевич Доценко - Страница 4

The 1860’s became for Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev the time of realization of the significant research of scientific and applied nature. Here the amazing correlation of theoretical works of the scientist and their practical application became apparent.

Later his son Ivan Dmitrievich Mendeleyev wrote about his father, “I knew as though two Mendeleyevs. One of them was an assiduous collector of facts, a petty empiricist – Wagner of Goethe, for whom the highest pleasure was the treatment of the number, piling of the data, examination of interesting individual features of the phenomena. Another one was the valorous Faust, passing away to the “spirits’ world”, to the world of ideas, to the world of general laws…”

In 1861, at the suggestion of the “Public Good” Publishing House, D. I. Mendeleyev wrote a manual of organic chemistry, which became the first Russian textbook on this subject. The basis of this manual was the series of lectures delivered by him in 1857–1858. The book was written during the extremely short term and it caused the broad response in the scientific and public groups. Mendeleyev was awarded to a prize of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1863 the second edition of the manual was published.

Mendeleyev also started to edit the Technical Encyclopedia in many volumes “Technologies according to Wagner” (Wagner J.– R. Theorie und Praxis der Gewerbe: Hand und Lehrhuch der Technologie). Wagner’s Encyclopedia was published in Leipzig in 1857–1860 and had a great success in Europe. First, D. I. Mendeleyev decided to make a translation only because of the lack of money. He remembered, “I started translating and completing the “Technologies according to Wagner” because it was paid (30 rubles per sheet), but then I was interested and made many additions…”

The work on editing this book took several years. Dmitry Ivanovich not just translated the “Technologies…” from German, but he made a large amount of adjustments, sometimes completing the book with his own chapters. After all, the “Technologies according to Wagner” played a significant role in the choice of the future subject of the scientist’s research. In the third part of the “Technologies…” there were discussed the scientific and technological problems, connected with alcohol production. The practical importance of precise data about the density of alcohol-aqueous solutions and theoretical meaning of these data combined in this question. Density had been always considered by D. I. Mendeleyev as the most important parameter of substance. By the middle of the 1860’s the scientist started paying less attention to the edition of the “Technologies according to Wagner” and was more and more concentrated on the research of the alcohol-aqueous solutions.

In 1863, in connection with the development of the technology of alcohol-aqueous industry, Mendeleyev started a new big series of science works on this subject. On the first stage he was constructing the instruments for defining alcohol concentration – alcoholometers. And on the next stage – the thorough research of relative density of alcohol-aqueous solutions in the whole interval of concentrations under several temperatures. This experimental work became the foundation of the Doctoral thesis, which was presented by him to the Council of Petersburg University at the end of 1864 and was defended by him in 1865.

The research “About the connection of alcohol with water” contains the basic regulations of Mendeleyev’s doctrine of the solutions and it especially determines the existence of water and alcohol connections. Here are the results of measuring the density of aqueous solutions of ethyl alcohol with 35 to 100 % of alcohol according to weight under five values of temperature (0°, 10°, 15°, 20° and 30 °C).

It is necessary to thank Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev that Russia was possible to give the world its famous Russian vodka. V. Pohlebkin in his article, devoted to the Mendeleyev’s research, wrote, “D. I. Mendeleyev, who had taken part in his time in the creation of the contemporary scientific technology of vodka production, insisted definitely on making the general official name “vodka” as the most exactly expressing the character of the drink.

Till the establishment of the vodka monopoly in 1894–1902, vodka had been produced very easily – by mixing up 50 % of alcohol with 50 % of water. Such a mixture gave 41–42° of alcohol in the drink. In order to get the forty-degree vodka, it was necessary not to combine volumes but to weigh alcohol precisely. Mendeleyev proved that 40°, which is indeed never got by mixing up the volumes of the water and alcohol, but only by mixing up the precise weight ratio of alcohol and water, should have been acknowledged as the ideal content of alcohol in vodka.

Thus, one litre of forty-degree vodka should weigh exactly 953 g. The alcoholic content of the alcohol-aqueous mixture, weighing 951 g, will be 41°, and it will be 39° in case of weighing 954 g. The physiological influence of such a mixture to organism becomes worse in both cases and, definitely speaking, both of them cannot be called vodka.

Densimeters constructed by D. I. Mendeleyev. Made in 1859-1860

Young Russian scientists-chemists. From left to right: N. Zhitinsky, D. I. Mendeleyev, A. P. Borodin, V. I. Olevinsky, I. O. Heidelberg. 1860

Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev and Theozva Nikitichna Mendeleyeva (nee Leshchova; 1828–1905) – the first wife of D. I. Mendeleyev. 1862

As a result of the research of D. I. Mendeleyev, since the end of the 19^th century only product containing grain alcohol mixed by water according to weight exactly till 40°, could have been regarded as Russian (or rather – “Moscow”) vodka. This Mendeleyev’s structure of vodka was patented in 1894 by the government of Russia as Russian national vodka – “Moscow Especial” (first it was named “Moscow Particular”).

As during the life of D. I. Mendeleyev his data were started to be used for the wine-making calculations in Austria, Germany and Holland.

In Imperial Russia the alcoholometrical tables were based on the archaic English and German data. The results of D. I. Mendeleyev were admitted later. In the 1920’s the special commission of the Principle Board of Weights and Measures came to a conclusion that the work of Mendeleyev was precise to the maximum. In 1927 new alcoholometrical tables, the basis of which were the results of the scientist’s research, were published.

From the very graduating the Main Pedagogical Institute, teaching took a considerable time of Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev. Teacher’s work of the scientist amazes by its breadth. At first, together with general, theoretical, organic and analytical chemistry he was teaching physics and physical geography. Students not just loved the scientist, they literally worshipped him. His appearance also made a great impression. He had never delivered his lectures smoothly, but always vividly, interestingly and informally, accompanying his words with an expressive mimicry. It was difficult to take exams to him.

Dmitry Ivanovich was teaching at the University, the Institute of Technology, the Institute of the Corps of Engineers of Communications, at the Nicholas Engineering Academy, the Nicholas Engineering School and at the 2^nd Military School. Since 1871 he had been teaching chemistry at the Higher Female Courses. Later the number of the educational institutions, where Mendeleyev had been teaching, slightly reduced and he concentrated all his work mainly at the Institute of Technology and at the University.

Mendeleyev wasn’t only teaching but he always took part in the public life of the educational institutions, quickly reacting to the changes, which had been made in the system of Russian education. The liberal reforms of the 1860’s, which had been made by Alexander II, applied to the system of education in Russia and influenced the life of the University immediately. The statute of the University, signed by Alexander II on June, 18^th of 1863, was the most liberal university regulation in Russia of the 19^th – the beginning of the 20^th century. The statute gave autonomy to the higher educational institution. The University’s board, the members of which were all the professors, became an independent institution. The Board had the right to choose the rector, pro-rector, deans and also professors for the vacant chairs. It was very important that the University’s board got an opportunity to divide the faculties to the branches, to join and to divide the chairs, to change them and to define which subjects should have been considered obligatory and not obligatory for students.

Having become in 1867 the head of the department of general chemistry of the physico-mathematical faculty, Mendeleyev succeeded to separate out an independent course of analytical chemistry, which had been taught by N. A. Menshutkin. Thanks to Mendeleyev’s initiative, A. M. Butlerov was invited to teach the course of organic chemistry from Kazan University in 1868. And since 1869 the chemical sciences were represented at the University by the three departments: of general and inorganic chemistry (D. I. Mendeleyev), of organic chemistry (A. M. Butlerov) and of analytical and technical chemistry (N. A. Menshutkin).

According to the Statute of 1863 the University got the right to establish scientific societies. Thus, Saint-Petersburg Society of Naturalists (1868), the Philological Society (1869) and the Physical Society (1872) appeared.

During these years D. I. Mendeleyev took an active part in the establishment of the scientific chemical society. There are notes in the diaries of the scientist of 1861–1862 about the meetings of the chemists which had become regular. At those meetings there were the majority of well-known chemists and representatives of the adjoining sciences, who worked in Saint-Petersburg. N. N. Zinin, F. F. Beilstein, L. N. Shishkov, A. A. Voskresensky, N. I. Koksharov, E. H. Lenz, B. S. Jacobi, etc. can be mentioned among them. It becomes clear from the diaries to what a great extent was the role of Mendeleyev in the establishment of the scientific chemical society. However, the dream of the scientist was realized only in 1868.

The work at the manual “The fundamentals of chemistry” takes an exclusive place in the life and activities of Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev at the end of the 1860’s. Right this work led the scientist to the discovery of the periodical law of chemical elements. Mendeleyev must have started to work at the text of the manual in winter of 1867–1868, using in the process of the work the stenograms of his lectures, made by the students. The book was published in separate editions, the first of which appeared at the end of May – beginning of June of 1868. Later Dmitry Ivanovich admitted that “The Fundamentals…” was his “dear child.”

During the process of the work at the schedule of the editions of the 2^nd part Mendeleyev was gradually coming from grouping the elements according to their valency to their location according to the resemblance of their characteristics and atomic weight. In the middle of February of 1869 Mendeleyev, while keeping thinking over the structure of the subsequent chapters of the book, reached in real earnest the problem of creating the rational system of chemical elements. The determining stage came on February, 17^th.

Anna Ivanovna Mendeleyeva (nee Popova; 1860–1942) – the second wife of D. I. Mendeleyev. Late 1870’s

Portrait of D. I. Mendeleyev made by A. I. Mendeleyeva. Oil, 1886

D. I. Mendeleyev. 1861

The memorial study of D. I. Mendeleyev. Restored and opened for visitors in December of 1911. (now the D. I. Mendeleyev Museum and Archives attached to SPbSU)

The desktop of D. I. Mendeleyev in his study at the University

D. I. Mendeleyev (in the centre) among the professors, lecturers and students of the physico-mathematical faculty of Saint-Petersburg University. 1875

The manuscript of the table “The experience of the system of elements, based on their atomic weight and chemical resemblance.” February, 17 ^th of 1869

Saint-Petersburg University in the latter half of the 19^th century. Water-colour by N. B. Belyavsky after the old engraving. Here D. I. Mendeleyev had been studying at the Main Pedagogical Institute (1850–1855), teaching (1857–1890) and living (1866–1890)

The scientist had been working when in the morning he was given a letter with the information about the supposed urgent trip to Tverskaya province. After having read the letter rapidly, he put the letter aside and kept comparing the different variants of comparing the elements of the natural groups according to their atomic weights. The papers cut into cards finished. A group of columns and lines, which became the starting point of the development of the table “The experience of the system of elements, based on their atomic weights and chemical resemblance”, appeared on the back side of the received letter. During the day Mendeleyev was working over the compilation of “The experience of the system of elements…” In the evening he sent a clean copy of the table to the press having made the notes for the typesetters and having written the date “February, 17^th of 1869.”

There is a version that Mendeleyev saw “the system of elements” in his dream. He got up from a joyful excitement and wrote rapidly the table on a piece of paper. That’s all. The scientist compiled a clear and harmonious building of the periodical system from the chaos of separate indigested chemical elements.

Dmitry Ivanovich utterly disliked talking with the strangers “about personal, subjective part of his feelings, about the preparatory period, when the ideas had been formulating and confidence that he had reached the one of the deepest mysteries of nature had been composed little by little.” However, according to the testimonies of Ivan, his son in a second marriage, the scientist used to say that the year of 1860 had become for him the “determinative moment” in the establishment of the periodical system – the congress of chemists in Carlsruhe. And more specifically – the ideas expressed by Italian chemist S. Cannizzaro. D. I. Mendeleyev said, “I consider him to be my real forerunner, because the atomic weights defined by him gave me the necessary point of support.”

In August of 1869, at the Second congress of Russian naturalists the scientist made a report “About the atomic volume of the simple substances”, where he offered a short form of the table. Only In, the rare earth elements and several heavy ones: Au, Hg, Te, Bi, Th, U, didn’t get any place there or were located incorrectly. The scientist kept working at the allocation of these elements.

D. I. Mendeleyev was writing about the 1870’s, “This was a transitional time for me: many things had been changing in me then; I used to read a lot about religions, sects, philosophy and economical articles then.”

At that time the aggressive extremist forces of the society livened up. Mendeleyev showed himself as an active public figure, longing for contributing to the salvation of the social problems of the country. Regarding it the article of the scientist, which had been written by him for the newspaper “Voice” in connection with the appeal of the government to Russian people calling for help in the struggle with extremism, but hadn’t been published, is deserving attention. It was called “Response to the call.” The scientist disputes against the “secret arrangements” of the government – secret investigations, prohibitions to read the “rebellious” literature, etc.

The growth of interest of the scientist to history, philosophy and literature contemporizes with the growth of activity in the socio-political sphere. However, Mendeleyev’s “disposition to painting was coming out clearer than anything else.” According to the testimonies of the contemporaries, he was “not a bad graphic artist.” The Wanderers appeared to be closer to Dmitry Ivanovich than other different art schools. Namely their creativity corresponded with his realistic cast of mind.

Mendeleyev enjoyed travelling very much. During his foreign trips he had studied the main art galleries of the world. It becomes evident at the sight of his photograph albums and engravings. He didn’t miss any art exhibition in Russia. The albums, made by Dmitry Ivanovich during the exhibitions of the painters-Wanderers, are of a special interest. Thus, for instance, in the archive of the scientist there was kept an album of photocopies mainly from the 6^th exhibition of 1878.

Since 1878 meetings of painters and scientists, which were named later the “Mendeleyev’s Wednesdays”, started taking place at Mendeleyev’s apartment: “There were constantly present all the Wanderers – Kramskoy, Repin, Yaroshenko, Myasoedov, Kuznetsov, Savitzky, Vl. Makovsky, P. K. Klodt, Maksimov, the Vasnetsovs, Surikov, Shishkin, Quindji, Kiselev, Ostrouhov, Volkov, Pozen, Lemoch, Prahov and Mihaltseva. Among the University professors there were more often than others Beketov, Menshutkin, Petrushevsky, Inostrantsev, Wagner, Voyeikov and Kraevich… They came to the “Wednesdays” without any special invitations.”

The “Wednesdays” were the continuation of those scientists’ meetings, the organization of which had been done by Dmitry Ivanovich during the previous years. Partly the establishment of the Association of the mobile exhibitions became an impulse for organizing the “Wednesdays.”

The scientist was interested in photography and took the most active part in organizing the photographic reproduction of the paintings and in developing the corresponding equipment. At the end of the 1870’s together with some painters and amateurs in photography he organized a group, the goal of which was the “use of photography in spreading the works of Russian art.” The group, which had been gathering at Mendeleyev’s apartment, joined the well-known Russian photographers: S. and L. Levitskies, V. Karrik, the inventor L. Varnerke, the young scientist V. I. Sreznevsky, etc. Namely here the idea of establishing in Petersburg the society of photography was born.

Except photographs and engravings, Dmitry Ivanovich was gathering valuable collections of art originals: drawings of Bruni, Ivanov, Fedotov, Repin, Quindji, Yaroshenko and Shishkin.

The painting of Quindji “Night at the Dnieper” not only made a great impression upon Mendeleyev, but also made him think about the questions of the theory of art. On November, 13^th of 1900 in the 314^th issue of the “Voice” was published his small article “Before the painting of Quindji.”

Mendeleyev wrote about a certain parallelism of the development of nature sciences and of the interest of artists for scenery: “They started studying nature, the natural science, which hadn’t been known in the ancient times and during the era of the Renaissance, was born… The nature became not a slave, a frame, but a helpmate, equal with man, a wife for a husband… The inductive, experimental sciences using the knowledge of external and internal, reconciling the kingly metaphysics and mathematics with the humble observation and with a request for an answer to the nature, became the crown of knowledge… At the same time with this change in the system of knowledge – if not earlier – the scenery was born.”

Making suitcases and frames for the portraits was another passion of Dmitry Mendeleyev, which became surrounded by legends and rumours. Mendeleyev always bought the materials for the work at Gostiny Dvor. Once, while choosing the necessary goods, he heard somebody asking behind his back: “Who is this respectable gentleman?” And the answer of the clerk: “It is necessary to know such people. This is Mendeleyev, a suitcase-maker.” In general, Mendeleyev liked to paste. It was a rest for him as well as patience or chess. He pasted very neatly and accurately, he sticked on the collections of photographs and engravings of Russian and foreign famous pictures, collected by him, he pasted cases for the albums and brochures, boxes, caskets, small travelling cases. His niece N. Y. Kapustina-Gubkina kept a folding traveling chess-board, made by Dmitry Ivanovich. The pasteboard figures were set into the special squares and they couldn’t fall out of them on no jolting on the road. In 1895 Dmitry Ivanovich couldn’t read and write after having had an operation of the cataract ablation: he had been read the papers aloud, he had been dictating the instructions to his secretary. And till his eyesight hadn’t come back once and for all, Mendeleyev devoted his spare time to this passion, having presented all his friends with suitcases, boxes and caskets.

Mendeleyev paid pretty much attention to the scientific research of spiritualism. He studied the phenomena, happening during the spiritualistic sessions, as a scientist and pedagogue, as far as the passion for spiritualism by many professors of the University could have influenced the student youth. He suggested to establish the special commission for studying the spiritualistic phenomena, attached to the Russian Physical Society. Well-known physicists and chemists took part in it in addition to Dmitry Ivanovich: I. I. Borgman, N. A. Gezehus, N. G. Egorov, K. D. Kraevich, F. F. Petrushevsky, etc. While studying the “spiritualistic phenomena”, the methods of natural sciences, instruments and calculations were broadly used. The conclusions of the commission were joined in the book, published by D. I. Mendeleyev, “The materials for commenting the spiritualism.” The funds, made by selling this book, were meant for “making a big balloon and in general for the research of the meteorological phenomena of the top layers of atmosphere.”

The versatility of personality and variety of interests of Mendeleyev are striking. But the scientist himself used to say so: “I respect one-sided talents, but, nevertheless, I consider them to be a certain abnormality. I like science most of all, but I think that I could have specialized in other spheres under the certain circumstances. I think that a normal person can orient everywhere.”

Mendeleyev was depressed by the end of the 1870’s. The state of his health had become worse. He had been taken ill with pleurisy and he had to go abroad for the treatment. Besides, his relationship with his wife Theozva Nikitichna was cooling down more and more.

In spring of 1877 his wife with the children goes to Boblovo. And the sister of Dmitry Ivanovich Katya comes temporarily with the children to his apartment. Anyuta Popova, the daughter of a Don Cossack, lived as a guest with Nadezhda, the niece of Mendeleyev. She studied at the Conservatoire in the class of piano; she visited the painting school attached to the Academy of Arts. Infatuation of Dmitry Ivanovich for her grew into love. However, Anyuta was more than 20 years younger than Mendeleyev. They were called Faust and Margaret behind their back.

Dmitry Ivanovich suffered deeply while struggling with his feeling. He considered necessary to tell everything to father of Anna Ivanovna, and the last one asked him not to meet with Anyuta anymore. The girl went abroad, but Mendeleyev followed her to Rome. In 1881, after having returned, he wrote to Theozva Nikitichna: “Yesterday I came back to Petersburg with Anna Ivanovna and her father Ivan Eustacievich…

My position is clear and specified already by this. If nothing extraordinary happens, it will stay being like that, and I will stay at the University, I will start lecturing and working as usual, and, in addition, I will solicit to have funds for 2 families.” “We’ve lived, we will stay being friends though not in one house.”

Theozva Nikitichna hasn’t agreed for the divorce for a long time. The marriage was dissolved only in 1881. In winter of the same year Lyuba, the daughter of Anna Ivanovna and Dmitry Ivanovich, was born. They could get married only in 1882. After the wedding the Mendeleyevs settled in the university apartment. Here their younger children were born later: a son Ivan and twins, Maria and Vasiliy, who were called in honour of the mother of Dmitry Ivanovich and his uncle Vasiliy Kornilyev, who had done many things for the Mendeleyevs in his time.

This period was a hard one for D. I. Mendeleyev also by another reason. It seemed to him that he didn’t have enough energy in order to realize his creative potential sufficiently. However, he kept working, and the periodical law, discovered by him, got more and more followers among the scientists of the world.

From the very beginning appeared the question of the priority of the discovery, started by the number of English and German scientists: W. Odling, L. Meyer, etc., in connection with the fundamental importance of the law. Mendeleyev devoted his publication “To the question of the system of elements”, which appeared in the “Reports of German Chemical Society” in 1871, right to this problem. In his small article the scientist mentioned the most important stages of his discovery and suggested for the first time to call his system periodical, because of the periodical law being its basis: “The measurable chemical and physical characteristics of the elements and their connections depend periodically on the atomic weights of the elements.”

The article “The periodical legality of the chemical elements”, which was the result of more than two years of work of the scientist, was published in 1871 in the “Annals of Pharmacy” (“Annalen der Pharmacie”), the oldest chemical magazine, founded in 1832 by the German chemist J. Libich. That is the evaluation of this article by Mendeleyev at the end of the 1890’s:

“This is the best code of my opinions and considerations about the periodicity of elements and this is the original, according to which there was written so much about this system. This is the main reason of my scientific reputation…”

In the same article the scientist gave the criterion of the solidity of the laws of nature in general: “Every law of nature gets the scientific meaning only in case that it, so to say, allows practical consequences, i. e. such logical conclusions, which explain unaccounted and point to the phenomena unknown before, and especially if the law leads to the predictions, which may be checked by experiment. In the last case the meaning of the law is evident and it is possible to check its equity, which at least impulses to the development of the new spheres of the science.”

By applying this thesis to the periodical law, he mentioned the following opportunities of its application: 1) to the system of elements;

2) to the definition of the characteristics of yet unknown elements;

3) to the definition of the atomic weight of scantily explored elements;

4) to the correction of the values of atomic weights; 5) to the renewal of the data concerning the forms of chemical compounds. Besides, Mendeleyev pointed to the possibility of “application of the periodical law: for the correct idea of the so-called associated compounds; for the comparative research of the physical characteristics of simple and compound bodies.” Mendeleyev thought when the physical sense of the periodical law would have been understood and the essence of the elements’ distinction would have been discovered on this basis, “then, certainly, chemistry would be able to leave the hypothetical field of static ideas, which are dominating there nowadays, and then there would be an opportunity to place it under the dynamic direction, which is already applied productively enough to the study of most of the physical phenomena.”

It is possible to say that the scientist outlined by this article the broad programm of the research on the subject of inorganic chemistry, based on the law of periodicity. Indeed, many important directions of inorganic chemistry were developed actually at the end of the 19^th – beginning of the 20^th century according to the ways, designed by D. I. Mendeleyev.

In March of 1879 there was an important event, which promoted the further consolidation of the periodical law in the science: the Swedish chemist L. Nilson told about having discovered scandium, which appeared to be the same with ekabor of Mendeleyev. However, L. Nilson defined the chemical nature of scandium incorrectly first, holding that the new element should have been placed for certain between tin and thorium in the periodical system. The identity of scandium and ekabor was clearly determined in August of 1879 by the countryman of Nilson P. Kleve. And in 1880 L. Nilson admitted the rightfulness of P. Kleve.

Thus, if the discovery of gallium by P. Lecock de Boibodrant in 1875 only confirmed the opportunities of the periodical system, the discovery of scandium made the chemists look at it as at a strict scientific generalization of data and facts, as to the guide to the further research of chemical elements. In 1884–1887 the periodical law became consolidated and was acknowledged by the vast majority of those scientists, who hadn’t made a proper account of it or ignored it at all.

In 1884 the “problem of beryllium” was finally solved. Up to that moment there hadn’t been any united standpoint concerning the valency of this element and the value of its atomic weight. On April, 17^th (5^th) L. Nilson wrote a letter to Mendeleyev, where he was stating all the data concerning beryllium and was warmly congratulating him with the fact, “that also in this case, as in many others, the system justified itself.” The discovery of the new chemical element germanium in the rare mineral argyrodite, made by K. Winkler in 1886, became an especially important event of that time in the fortune of the teaching of periodicity.

That was the triumph of the periodical system of elements. It was totally acknowledged by the scientific world. And Mendeleyev himself reacted to the discovery of germanium in a very unusual way: in May of 1886 he made a special photomontage of the “consolidators of the periodical law.” This photomontage, pasted to the mat, consisted of four portraits: P. Lecock de Boibodrant, L. Nilson, K. Winckler and B. Browner. On the back side, in front of each portrait, there were made notes by the hand of Mendeleyev, which were briefly characterizing the accomplishments of the scientist.

The authority of D. I. Mendeleyev was growing among the scientists of the world. However, everything wasn’t so easy in Russia. The news about D. I. Mendeleyev having got married to Anna Popova without having had divorced with the first wife caused many rumours and gossips. It was even rumoured that the actual bigamy of the scientist became the reason of Dmitry Ivanovich’s having not being elected to the academy. A joke even was said during those years: when one of the generals applied to the emperor with a request to give him a permission for the second marriage, Alexander III refused definitely. And when the general reminded that Mendeleyev had had two wives and nothing had happened, the emperor answered: “That is true, that Mendeleyev has two wives, but I have only one Mendeleyev.” But, certainly, there was another reason of Mendeleyev having not been elected to the actual members of the Academy of Sciences. The scientist’s relationships with the officials in the government as well as in the scientific circles were far from cloudless. Mendeleyev himself after having visited once the Ministry wrote in his diary: “Never have I been to put on airs, to kowtow before anybody, and it is necessary for them to do both, there isn’t any middle. May their kingdom flourish – it isn’t a place for us – it is humiliating, it is bad to become trivial with them, you want to cry and anger is overcoming.”

The question of electing Mendeleyev to the actual members of Petersburg Academy of Sciences was raised at the beginning of 1880. Naturally, the scientific activity of D. I. Mendeleyev was connected from the very beginning with the Academy. He had many friends there: J. F. Fritzsche, N. N. Zinin, E. H. Lenz, A. M. Butlerov, etc. The articles of Mendeleyev were being published repeatedly in the editions of the Academy of Sciences. In 1876 D. I. Mendeleyev was elected a Corresponding Member of the Academy of Sciences without any specific difficulties. The candidature of D. I. Mendeleyev was suggested by G. P. Gelmersen, N. I. Koksharov, F. B. Schmidt, A. V. Gadolin and A. M. Butlerov. 17 from 20 presented voted for him. It is possible to explain the success of the elections also by the impression, which had been made upon the scientific world by the discovery of gallium by Lecock de Boibodrant.

In March of 1880 there was established the commission attached to the Department of Physico-Mathematical Sciences, which was to nominate the academician candidates to the chair of technology and chemistry. The fact is that at the beginning of February of 1880 academician N. N. Zinin died. The “chair” of the academician “in the sphere of technology and chemistry, adapted to the arts and crafts” became empty.

Butlerov, Koksharov, physicists Wield and Gadolin were the members of the commission. Butlerov nominated two candidatures: D. I. Mendeleyev and professor N. N. Beketov from Kharkov University. Both scientists were at the chairs of “pure” chemistry at the universities and formally couldn’t claim to the vacant post of academician at the chair of technology and chemistry. But Butlerov hadn’t found worthier candidature. The commission hesitated in the choice between the two scientists. Beketov had learned about it and agreed that it was necessary to nominate Mendeleyev in that case.

While characterizing the candidature of D. I. Mendeleyev, academicians A. M. Butlerov, P. L. Chebyshev, N. I. Koksharov and F. V. Ovsyannikov noted his extraordinary accomplishments in the science: “Professor Mendeleyev takes first place in Russian chemistry, and we dare to think, sharing the general opinion of Russian chemists, that the place in the primary class of the Russian empire belongs to him by right. By adding professor Mendeleyev to its milieu, the Academy will honour the Russian science and, therefore, itself as its spiritual representative.”

Mendeleyev started preparing the speech, which he was to pronounce after the election. The speech was named “Which Academy do we need?”. The necessity of changes was its main topic.

Indispensable secretary of the Academy of Sciences K. S. Veselovsky tried to disrupt the balloting. He advised the president F. P. Litke to use the “veto” so that the elections would not have taken place at all. However, the elections took place in November of 1880. 18 people took part in it: 16 members of the physico-mathematical department, the president who had had two votes and the indispensable secretary. Exactly the half of the staff of the Department of physico-mathematical sciences seconded the candidature of Mendeleyev. The University scientists were the supporters of the election: A. M. Butlerov, P. L. Chebyshev, N. I. Koksharov and A. S. Famintsyn. Indispensable secretary of the Academy K. S. Veselovsky was one of the main opponents. Mendeleyev lacked four votes to become an Actual Member of the Academy of Sciences. The academic majority has blackballed the scientist.

The paper, where the approximate allocation of the forces was written by the hand of Butlerov: “It is evident – the black ones: Litke (2), Veselovsky, Gelmersen, Schrenk, Maksimovich, Strauch, Schmidt, Wield and Gadolin. The white ones: Bunyakovsky, Koksharov, Butlerov, Famintsyn, Ovsyannikov, Chebyshev, Alekseev, Struve and Savich.”

The voting against Mendeleyev broadly echoed in the press. The question of the reasons of having not elected the scientist to the members of the Academy of Sciences is rather disputable. The contemporaries mentioned different versions: “intrigues of German party”, a difficult temper of D. I. Mendeleyev, a competition between the Academy of Sciences and Saint-Petersburg University. It is also necessary to take into consideration the fact that the periodical law was one of the items, according to which Mendeleyev was recommended for academician, hasn’t absolutely consolidated in the scientific world and raised certain doubts yet.

Protests from different institutions and organizations fell to the Academy of Sciences. Mendeleyev received hundreds of sympathetic letters. During the small period after having been blackballed Mendeleyev got about 20 diplomas of the status of honorary member of the number of Russian universities and scientific societies.

Dmitry Ivanovich took hard the failed elections for academician, though the general attention and reaction of the press seemed to worry him more. He wrote in his letter to an old friend of him, the professor of the University in Kiev, P. P. Alekseev: “… I didn’t want to be elected to the Academy, I would have been discontent with it, because they don’t need there what I may give, and I don’t want to reorganize myself anymore. There is neither foreign pomposity, solid firmness in the object of studies, nor the affected religious rite in the temple of science may be in me, if it had never been.” Telegrams and sympathetic letters worried Mendeleyev. However, later Dmitry Ivanovich came to a conclusion that he was only a cause, thus, it was expressed “the wish to change the old with something new, but with its own…”. And he was ready to help “to transform the fundamentals of the Academy to something new, Russian, his own…”.

Unseldom the scientist had to overcome the hard periods of failures, misunderstanding and aloofness, arousing in him pessimism, tiredness and unbelief in his own strength. During one of such periods, in spring of 1884, he wrote a pathetic letter to the children from his first wife, Olga and Vladimir, a peculiar instruction for life, full of love to the children, and at the same time a will. The letter ended with the words: “… live with God, labour and truth. It’s time me had a rest, it’s time, farewell…”

By the twist of fate, rejected as a member of Petersburg Academy of Sciences, the scientist was unanimously elected at the beginning of the 1890’s as a member of the Russian Academy of Fine Arts.

D. I. Mendeleyev did a lot in the sphere of economy and industry of Russia.

He was always in earnest about agriculture and during a period he was making experiments at his plots in the estate of Boblovo. His niece N. Y. Kapustina-Gubkina wrote that during the first years after Dmitry Ivanovich had purchased the estate, he “took a great interest in his agricultural experiments.” There was fenced off a so-called experimental field with the samples of different fertilizer. The experiments gave a brilliant result. The peasants were amazed: the crop on the experimental field got above twice and three times the harvest on their fields. Kapustina-Gubkina remembered that once the peasants came to Dmitry Ivanovich with a question. After having finished the work, they couldn’t help asking about what had amazed them so much: “I say, Mitry Ivanych, your bread has grown so good over the Arzhany pond… Is it your talent or fortune?” The eyes of Dmitry Ivanovich flashed gaily and clearly, he grinned cunningly and said: “Certainly, brothers, the talent.” Sometimes he liked to talk to the peasants in their “vulgar manner”, and, according to the recollections of Kapustina-Gubkina, he did it very naturally, it suited very much “his Russian face.”

After some time the agricultural experiments in Boblovo were stopped because of the lack of time, but Mendeleyev applied to economic, agricultural and industrial problems of a larger scale.

Later he will say in his work “To the knowledge of Russia”: “In my life I had to take part in the fortune of three… affairs: oil, coal and iron-ore.” During the period of 1880–1883 he applied to chemistry, technology and economy of petroleum industry.

The scientist made the laboratory research on sublimation of petroleum at the Konstantinovsky factory of V. I. Ragozin near Yaroslavl. Under the observation of Mendeleyev at this factory there was made a special device, with the help of which the scientist was testing the organization of the continuous sublimation of petroleum.

While working in the “petroleum sphere”, Dmitry Ivanovich published the number of economical works. The main ideas, expressed in the economic works of this period (“The Letters about the factories”, etc.), come to the following. The industrialization of Russia at the present stage of its development is a historical necessity. The number of peculiarities of economic and geographical state of Russia – the underdeveloped natural resources, idle manpower or usable only seasonally, capacious home market of Russia itself and also of the neighbouring Asiatic countries, remoteness of many regions from the harbours and the rise in prices of imported hardware as a sequent of it – creates opportunities for developing the national industry.

D. I. Mendeleyev also studied the questions of economy of the coal industry. On the instructions of the government he studied the reasons of its crisis in the south of Russia. During winter and summer of 1888 Dmitry Ivanovich was in Donbas thrice, he learned the state of affairs at the main entrails, visited many mines and factories. He expounded the results of his trips in the number of official documents; he made reports at the meetings of Russian physico-mathematical society and broadly illustrated in a large publicistic article “The future power, resting on the shores of the Donetz.”

During the process of studying the industry of Donbas Dmitry Ivanovich came to a conclusion that the development of Russian industry was hampered by an incorrect correlation of the stuff export and the finished hardware import. After the trip to Donbas he started active work on the revision of the customs-tariff, into which he put many efforts. The result of it was the book “Perspicuous tariff, or the Research of the development of industry of Russia in connection with its general customs-tariff of 1891.”

In the book “Perspicuous tariff” the analysis of different systems of political economy is given, the customs policy of west-European countries is being examined, and first of all of England. A great importance is given to the history of the customs policy of Russia beginning from the 16^th century.

The main idea of Mendeleyev – the use of industry – underlies his theoretical views. “Industry is a necessary link of the contemporary life of people at all steps of their development… It is necessary to put up with the participation and meaning of importance as with the structure of air and water, as with the necessity to live and die.” “If twinkling of the dawn of that future world and of the rightful allocation of prosperity, possible for countries and people, is visible ahead – just by means of the same industry, because the experience of history showed the inadequacy neither of the concentrated effort of the military power, of various forms of landed property nor of the highest development of enlightenment, especially since it is still drawing inspiration of the most pugnacious and reasoning classicists for reaching this gospel direction…”

At the same time D. I. Mendeleyev was seriously interested in the problems of aerostatics and meteorology. In summer of 1887 he made a famous flight on a balloon, organized by the Russian technical society. The flight took place during the solar eclipse. The scientist was attracted by the opportunity to observe the corona for the first time during this phenomenon.

Mendeleyev was preparing seriously this important experiment. He suggested, e. g. to use for flight a balloon, filled not with a coal gas, but with the hydrogen, which provided the raise to the big height and, therefore, guaranteed the success of the observation.

On August, 7^th, in spite of the early morning-hour, an enormous crowd of people gathered at the place of start of the balloon, near Klin: scientists, close friends of Mendeleyev and just those, who wished to see this exciting show. It was supposed that Mendeleyev and pilot-aeronaut A. M. Kovanyko would fly. However, the balloon became wet because of the bad weather and appeared to be unable to raise two people. Mendeleyev flew alone. Mendeleyev wrote in his notes about the flight: “… however, I should explain the reason why I had an immediate determination to travel alone, when it turned out that the balloon wasn’t able to raise both of us… Understanding that we, professors, and scientists in general, are considered everywhere to be able to say and advise but not to be able to manage the practical work, that we, the Shchedrin’s generals, always need a peasant to do something otherwise we are all fingers and thumbs, – played a great role in my decision. I wanted to demonstrate that this view might be fair in some other cases, but unfair regarding the naturalists, who are passing their lives in their laboratories, at the excursions and in the research of nature in general. We should certainly be able to manage practice… and there was an excellent opportunity for it.”

The air-balloon raised high not enough and the sun was partly covered with the clouds, nevertheless, the scientist described the shape, color and the size of the corona in his essay in details.

Since Mendeleyev had lifted and landed the balloon skillfully, many people started talking about the coincidence of happy chances, which had allowed to make the flight so successful. Mendeleyev couldn’t agree with such an explanation and added to the famous words of Suvorov: “Good luck, God forbid, good luck” – “There is something necessary except it. Both beauty, if not always, but most often corresponds to the high measure of advisability, and good luck – to the calm and completely reasonable attitude to the goal and means.”

The air-balloon “Russian”, on which D. I. Mendeleyev flew from Klin on August, 7^th of 1887 during the solar eclipse

In the middle of the 1880’s serious changes in the system of higher education happened again. The liberal Charter of the University existed till 1884. On August, 23^rd Alexander III signed the bill of the minister of public education I. D. Delyanov about abolishing the “liberties of 1863.” The law liquidated the autonomy of the University and placed its life under the care of the minister and of the curator of educational district. Essentially the charter had put big obstacles on the way to the perfection of education and to the development of science in the universities. The system of higher education obeyed even more the State, the social staff of the student organisation was being changed. Most of the professors of Petersburg University sharply disapproved the university counter-reform.

During the period of preparing the charter Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev still sharply objected to it. He thought that the maximum openness of the defences and publication of positive and negative responses was necessary. “On the whole, he wrote, the “new” Charter of the University has deprived the universities’ boards of the former trust. It is impossible to build the enlightenment properly without trusting the general staff of the professors.” The Ministry of Public Education started limiting visibly the activity of Mendeleyev within the precincts of Petersburg University, obstructing his work. The scientist saw that the University was giving him less and less opportunities for realizing his ideas. He started accomplishing big deals and beginnings outside the University more and more often, which finally prepared his leaving.

The information about the threatening student meeting at the University appeared in home notes of D. I. Mendeleyev on March, 13^th of 1890. Professors A. A. Inostrantsev and V. V. Dokuchaev made him a request to call the students for peace in case of need. Mendeleyev agreed. On March, 14^th he spoke to the students, suggesting them to go away, but while understanding the correctness of many requests of those who had gathered at the meeting he addressed to the Minister for Public Education I. D. Delyanov and told him about the requests of the students. On March, 15^th he persuaded the students before the lecture to give him the petition written by them in order to deliver it to the minister.

From the petition of the students to the Minister for Public Education:

“We want the charter of the universities and other high educational institutions to be based on the principles of autonomy – so that the rector and professors would be elected according to the Charter of the university of 1863, so that the university and student court would have been established… so that all the graduates of high schools regardless of religion, social position and without any secret characteristics from the direction of gymnasium and police would have a free access to the University… We are sure that the freedom of teaching will be given to our professors along with it…”

As we may see, those were the requests for the democratization of the university education, which were usual for that time. However, on March, 16^th