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1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 The periodic table showing symbols and atomic numbers of naturall...Figure 1.2 The predicted sequence of orbital energies for electrons in atoms...Figure 1.3 The periodic table of naturally occurring elements showing the el...Figure 1.4 First ionization potential of the elements.Figure 1.5 Electronegativities of the elements. Nonmetals are characterized ...Figure 1.6 Ionic radii of the elements.Figure 1.7 Van der Waals interactions arise because of the polar nature of s...Figure 1.8 (a) Geometry of the water molecule. (b) Hydrogen bonds between wa...Figure 1.9 (a) The silica tetrahedron, , consists of a silicon atom surroun...Figure 1.10 Geometric relationships between cations and their coordinating a...Figure 1.11 Silicate mineral structures. (a) In orthosilicates such as olivi...Figure 1.12 The Earth in cross-section. The outer rocky part of the planet, ...Figure 1.13 Cross-section of the Earth illustrating relationships between li...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Systems in relation to their surroundings. The ball represents ma...Figure 2.2 States of a system.Figure 2.3 An ideal gas thermometer. The colored area is the volume occupied...Figure 2.4 A gas-filled box with a removable partition. When the partition i...Figure 2.5 Possible distribution of molecules of a red and a black gas in a ...Figure 2.6 Two copper blocks at different temperatures separated by an insul...Figure 2.7 There are six possible ways to distribute six energy units so tha...Figure 2.8 (a) Probability of one of two copper blocks of equal mass in ther...Figure 2.9 Occupation of vibrational energy levels calculated from the Boltz...Figure 2.10 Vibrational contribution to heat capacity as a function of kT/hν...Figure 2.11 Transformations on a temperature–pressure diagram. Changes in st...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Graphical representation of the system Al₂O₃−H₂O.Figure 3.2 Phase diagram for the system Al₂O₃–H₂O–SiO₂. The lines are calle...Figure 3.3 Comparison of the graphite–diamond phase boundary calculated fro...Figure 3.4 Vapor pressure of water and dioxane in a water–dioxane mixture s...Figure 3.5 Variation of the partial molar volumes of water and ethanol as a...Figure 3.6 Free energy of mixing as a function of temperature in the ideal ...Figure 3.7 Molar free energy in an ideal mixture and a graphical illustrati...Figure 3.8 Schematic plot of the chemical potential of component i in solut...Figure 3.9 (a) Structure of the water molecule. Bond angle in the liquid pha...Figure 3.10 Solvation of a cation in aqueous solution. In the first solvati...Figure 3.11 Relationship of activity and molality, reference state, and sta...Figure 3.12 Apparent molar volume of NaCl in aqueous solution as a function...Figure 3.13 Standard molar volume of NaCl in aqueous solution as a function...Figure 3.14 An ion surrounded by a cloud of oppositely charged ions, as ass...Figure 3.15 Variation of the Ca²⁺ activity coefficient with ionic stren...Figure 3.16 Ionic strength of natural electrolyte solutions and the applica...Figure 3.17 Log of the solubility constant of barite plotted against the in...Figure 3.18 Electrode reactions in the Daniell cell.Figure 3.19 pε–pH diagram showing predominance regions for ferric and ferro...Figure 3.20 Stability regions for magnetite and hematite in equilibrium wit...Figure 3.21 pε and pH of various waters on and near the surface of the Eart...Figure 3.22 Oxygen buffer curves in the system Fe−Si−O at 1 bar. QIF, IW, W...

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Exsolution lamellae of Na-rich feldspar (albite) from a K-rich (o...Figure 4.2 Alkali feldspar solid solution computed at 600°C and 200 MPa (2 k...Figure 4.3 ΔG _real of alkali feldspar solution computed for a series of tempe...Figure 4.4 ΔG surface for the alkali feldspar solid solution as a function o...Figure 4.5 Activity and activity cofficient of albite in alkali feldspar sol...Figure 4.6 (a) Schematic isothermal, isobaric G–X plot for a real solution s...Figure 4.7 A small portion of a –X plot illustrating the origin of th...Figure 4.8 P–T phase diagram for SiO₂. This system has one component b...Figure 4.9 Phase diagram (T–X) for the two-component system diopside–anorthi...Figure 4.10 Computed phase diagram for the system anorthite–diopside (CaAl₂S...Figure 4.11 −X diagram for a two-component system exhibiting complete solut...Figure 4.12 Plot of molar free energy vs. composition ( –X₂) for two-phase d...Figure 4.13 Two univariant systems: (a) a liquid plus two solid solutions, a...Figure 4.14 –X diagrams and a T–X phase diagram for the plagioclase–l...Figure 4.15 Phase diagram for a metapelite calculated using THERMOCALC. The ...Figure 4.16 Phase diagram for Al₂SiO₅ (kyanite–sillimanite–andalusite) as de...Figure 4.17 Isopleths of Al in orthopyroxene (thin red lines; weight percent...Figure 4.18 a. Lamellae of orthopyroxene (opx; bright lines) exsolved from a...Figure 4.19 Comparison of calculated (solid lines) and experimentally observ...Figure 4.20 Olivine saturation surface constructed by Roeder and Emslie (197...Figure 4.21 The TiO₂–FeO–Fe₂O₃ ternary system. Phases are: FeO, wüstite; Fe₂Figure 4.22 Relationship of composition of coexisting titanomagnetite and il...Figure 4.23 Silicate structures. (a) Short-range silicate structures in melt...Figure 4.24 (a) Structure of pure silica glass and (b) a silica-rich glass w...Figure 4.25 SiO₂ concentrations in a melt produced by melting of peridotite ...Figure 4.26 Compositions of pyroxenes found in lavas from the Cameroon Line....Figure 4.27 (a) Three-dimensional P–T–V phase diagram for liquid...Figure 4.28 (a) Relationship between activity and molality of NaCl in aqueou...Figure 4.29 Observed mean ion activity coefficient, γ_±, of NaCl as a fu...Figure 4.30 Comparison of the electrostatic contribution to the mean ion act...Figure 4.31 In formation of ion pairs, the solvation shells may remain intac...Figure 4.32 Effects of ion association on the activity coefficient. Mean ion...Figure 4.33 Measured mean ionic activity coefficients in MgCl₂ solution as a...Figure 4.34 (a). Partial molar heat capacity of aqueous CaCl₂ at 17.5 MPa (a...Figure 4.35 Temperature–composition phase diagram for aqueous solutions of N...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 A nitrogen atom approaching an oxygen molecule must have enough k...Figure 5.2 A nitrogen atom will sweep out a volume V = vπ(r _N + r _O )²Figure 5.3 (a) Relative change in the reaction rate as a function of activat...Figure 5.4 Progress in the reaction CO_2(aq) + H₂O → H₂CO₃ with time, as meas...Figure 5.5 Structure of L-isoleucine and D-alloisoleucine. Solid...Figure 5.6 The relationship between enthalpy of reaction and the barrier ene...Figure 5.7 Comparison of observed and predicted rates of the aragonite ⇋ cal...Figure 5.8 Log of the rate constant vs. inverse of temperature for a variety...Figure 5.9 Relative volume of dolomite as a function of time predicted at 62...Figure 5.10 A volume of dimension dx with fluxes through the planes at x and...Figure 5.11 Three possible concentration gradients. In (a), ∂ ² c/∂x...Figure 5.12 Concentration profiles at three different times resulting from o...Figure 5.13 An extended initial distribution can be thought of as consisting...Figure 5.14 Distribution of a diffusing species initially confined to −∞ < xFigure 5.15 A zoned plagioclase crystal in a lava from the Azores viewed wit...Figure 5.16 Distribution of Ni in a spherical olivine grain with an initial ...Figure 5.17 Change in the bulk concentration of Sr in a 2 mm diameter calcit...Figure 5.18 Electron microprobe traverses across the contact of basaltic liq...Figure 5.19 Four types of diffusion mechanisms in solids. After Henderson (1...Figure 5.20 Schematic plot of log diffusion rate against inverse of temperat...Figure 5.21 Schematic plot of log diffusion rate against inverse of temperat...Figure 5.22 On a microscopic scale, the surface of a mineral exhibits a numb...Figure 5.23 Free energy as a function of crystal radius for small crystals f...Figure 5.24 Calculated nucleation rate of diopside in diopside melt as a fun...Figure 5.25 Photomicrograph of an intergrowth of clinopyroxene and plagiocla...Figure 5.26 Illustration of the balance of forces as a spherical crystal or ...Figure 5.27 Variation of Sr and Rb concentrations from a plagioclase–liquid ...Figure 5.28 Left: Photomicrograph of a fossiliferous limestone from Texas (L...Figure 5.29 a. Distribution of grain sizes normalized to mean grain diameter...Figure 5.30 Variation of adsorption density of Sr on FeOH as a function of S...Figure 5.31 Oxygenation of vanadyl at pH 4 and PO₂ = 1 atm in experiments of...Figure 5.32 Mechanism of oxygenation of surface-bound vanadyl. In step (1) v...Figure 5.33 Cartoon of proton-promoted dissolution of an oxide such as quart...Figure 5.34 Log of the rate of Al₂O₃ dissolution plotted against the log of ...Figure 5.35 Quartz dissolution and precipitation rates at 200°C in near-neut...Figure 5.36 Experimentally determined dissolution rates of common minerals a...Figure 5.37 Comparison of olivine (forsterite) and feldspar (albite) structu...Figure 5.38 Enstatite (MgSiO₃) and forsterite (Mg₂SiO₄) dissolution rates as...Figure 5.39 (a). Albite dissolution rates measured by Hellman and Tisserand ...Figure 5.40 Log of steady-state dissolution (a) and growth (b) of calcite as...Figure 5.41 Steady-state diagenesis. Concentration at a fixed depth x ₁ below...Figure 5.42 Concentration profiles in a sediment in which the composition of...Figure 5.43 Fluxes through a box in a sedimentary layer of unit lateral dime...Figure 5.44 Dissolved sulfate concentrations in sediments from the Saanich I...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Activities of different species in the carbonate system as a func...Figure 6.2 Titration curve (solid red line) for a one liter 0.005 M Na₂CO₃ ...Figure 6.3 Buffer intensity as a function of pH for several ideal natural sy...Figure 6.4 Buffer capacity of a carbonate solution in equilibrium with atmos...Figure 6.5 Illustration of ion pair and complex formation. Two types of ion ...Figure 6.6 Predominant aquo-, hydroxo-, and oxo-complexes as a function of p...Figure 6.7 Fraction of Pb complexed as PbOH⁺ as a function of pH.Figure 6.8 pH and −log α, as a function of total copper concentration in aqu...Figure 6.9 Classification of the elements with respect to complex formation ...Figure 6.10 Stability constants for transition metal sulfate and organic com...Figure 6.11 Concentration of calcium ion in equilibrium with calcite at 25°C...Figure 6.12 Comparison of the evolution of systems with constant (open sys...Figure 6.13 Predominance diagrams for Mg-bearing phases in equilibrium with ...Figure 6.14 Stability of magnesite, dolomite, calcite, and brucite in equili...Figure 6.15 Stability diagram showing the stable solid Fe-bearing phases in ...Figure 6.16 Log activity of dissolved silica in equilibrium with quartz and ...Figure 6.17 Solubility of metal hydroxides as a function of pH. After Stumm ...Figure 6.18 Log activity of dissolved aluminum species and total Al (solid r...Figure 6.19 Solubility of goethite as a function of pH. Solubility of indivi...Figure 6.20 Total dissolved Al activity in equilibrium with gibbsite, pyroph...Figure 6.21 Stability diagram for the system K₂O−Al₂O₃−SiO₂−H₂O at 25°C. Aft...Figure 6.22 Stability diagram for the system K₂O−Na₂O−CaO−Al₂O₃−SiO₂−H₂O at ...Figure 6.23 Structure of gibbsite and brucite. (a) Plan (vertical) view. (b)...Figure 6.24 Structure of kaolinite. (a) Plan view of the tetrahedral layer. ...Figure 6.25 Structure of pyrophyllite.Figure 6.26 Structure of muscovite (KAl₃Si₃O₁₀(OH)₂). The structure of the c...Figure 6.27 Structure of chlorite.Figure 6.28 (a) Metal ions (small red spheres) and oxygens (large gray spher...Figure 6.29 Complex formation of solid surfaces may occur when (a) a metal r...Figure 6.30 Binding of ligands (anions) on the surface of hydrous ferric oxi...Figure 6.31 Calculated adsorption of Pb²⁺ on hydrous ferric oxide for th...Figure 6.32 Calculated adsorption (Θ, fraction of sites occupied) of metals ...Figure 6.33 Inner sphere surface complexes involve some degree of covalent b...Figure 6.34 (a) Surface charge of some common sedimentary materials as a fun...Figure 6.35 Surface charge on FeOOH as a function of pH for different ionic ...Figure 6.36 (a) Titration of a suspension of α−FeOOH (goethite) (6 g/liter)...Figure 6.37 Variation in electrical potential and ions with distance from a ...Figure 6.38 The double layer surrounding clay particles.Figure 6.39 Surface speciation of hydrous ferric oxide for I = 0.1 M calcul...Figure 6.40 Comparison of calculated adsorption of Pb on hydrous ferric oxid...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Three-dimensional histogram illustrating the abundance of the el...Figure 7.2 Goldschmidt's classification of the elements.Figure 7.3 The geochemical periodic table, in which elements are grouped acc...Figure 7.4 (a) Solubility of the rare gases in melts of varying composition ...Figure 7.5 Ionic radii of the lanthanide rare earth elements (3+ state excep...Figure 7.6 Concentrations of the rare earths in the carbonaceous chondritic ...Figure 7.7 A rare earth plot showing rare earth patterns for average upper c...Figure 7.8 Shale-normalized REE patterns of a Pacific pelagic sediment (V21-...Figure 7.9 Chondrite-normalized abundances of the noble metals in ore deposi...Figure 7.10 Ionic radius (picometers) vs. ionic charge contoured for clinopy...Figure 7.11 Effects of temperature and water in the melt on trace element pa...Figure 7.12 Experimentally determined clinopyroxene–liquid and plagioclase–l...Figure 7.13 Because increasing pressure increases the amount of jadeite (NaA...Figure 7.14 Variation of the zinc olivine/liquid partition coefficient as a ...Figure 7.15 Comparison of Zn olivine/melt partition coefficients of Kohn and...Figure 7.16 Effect of tetrahedral aluminum mole fraction and Na₂O melt conce...Figure 7.17 Comparison of calculated REE patterns for a representative andes...Figure 7.18 Rare earth mineral–melt partition coefficients for mafic magmas....Figure 7.19 Geometry of the d orbitals.Figure 7.20 (a) Orientation of ligands and Cartesian coordinates for a metal...Figure 7.21 (a) Orientation of ligands and Cartesian coordinates for a metal...Figure 7.22 Arrangement of ligands and energy levels for (a) an octahedral s...Figure 7.23 Schematic phase diagram for the system forsterite–Ni olivine sho...Figure 7.24 Variation in C ^ℓ /C ^o with degree of melting, F, for various ...Figure 7.25 Rare earth patterns of 7% batch and aggregate fractional partial...Figure 7.26 Comparison of continuous and fractional melting for D = 0.0001 a...Figure 7.27 Representation of melting of an ascending packet of mantle in te...Figure 7.28 Relationship between extent of melting, F, and temperature in pe...Figure 7.29 Relationship between dihedral angle, θ, and melt distributi...Figure 7.30 Three-dimensional network formed by melt along triple junctions ...Figure 7.31 (a) Melting regime under a mid-ocean ridge. Red lines show the f...Figure 7.32 Variation of relative trace element concentration in a liquid un...Figure 7.33 Magma chamber undergoing in situ crystallization. The solidifica...Figure 7.34 Comparison of the effects of in situ and fractional crystallizat...Figure 7.35 Schematic illustration of a steady-state and periodically refill...Figure 7.36 Concentration of Ni and La in closed system fractional crystalli...Figure 7.37 La and Ni concentrations plotted against MgO concentration in a ...Figure 7.38 Plot of the ratio of two incompatible elements (one with D = 0.0...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Binding energy per nucleon versus mass number.Figure 8.2 Binding energy per nucleon versus mass number as calculated using...Figure 8.3 Neutron number versus proton number for stable nuclides.Figure 8.4 Nuclear energy-level diagram showing decay of bismuth-212 by alph...Figure 8.5 Proton and neutron occupation levels of boron-12, carbon-12, and ...Figure 8.6 Schematic of a magnetic sector mass spectrometer. Ions produced a...Figure 8.7 A Rb-Sr isochron. Five analyses from a clast in the Bholghati met...Figure 8.8 Sr isotopic evolution of the bulk Earth, evolution of high Rb/Sr ...Figure 8.9 ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr in seawater over the last 800 Ma, determined from the a...Figure 8.10 (a) Nd isotope evolution in mantle and crust. Bold line shows th...Figure 8.11 Sm-Nd model ages. ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd is extrapolated backward (slope de...Figure 8.12 Sr and Nd isotope ratios in major geochemical reservoirs. The is...Figure 8.13 ε_Hf vs. ε_Nd in oceanic basalts and seawater.Figure 8.14 Low ¹⁷⁶Lu/¹⁷⁷Hf in zircons allows for calculation of their ε_Hf a...Figure 8.15 (a) Schematic evolution of Os isotope ratios in the mantle and c...Figure 8.16 (a) Histogram comparing γ_Os in abyssal peridotites, MORB, and su...Figure 8.17 Os isotope composition of seawater over the last 80 Ma. Based on...Figure 8.18 High-precision Ce and Nd isotope data on MORB, OIB, island arc v...Figure 8.19 Evolution of Pb isotope ratios. The curved lines represent the e...Figure 8.20 Zircon crystal seen under the microscope. This crystal is approx...Figure 8.21 A concordia diagram illustrating U–Pb dating of zircons and othe...Figure 8.22 Pb isotope ratios in major terrestrial reservoirs. Typical lower...Figure 8.23 Part of the chart of the nuclides showing the series of decays t...Figure 8.24 (²³⁰Th/²³²Th) as a function of depth in a manganese nodule from ...Figure 8.25 Sea level rise at the end of the last glaciation based on Th-U d...Figure 8.26 Left. Photo of flowstone over a hand stencil in Maltravieso Cave...Figure 8.27 (a) ²³⁰Th–²³⁸U isochron diagram. The (²³⁸U/²³²Th) of the source ...Figure 8.28 (a) ²³⁰Th–²³⁸U mineral isochron on a dacite lava from Seguam Isl...Figure 8.29 He isotope ratios in various terrestrial and solar system materi...Figure 8.30 Ne isotope ratios in terrestrial materials. The line marked “MDF...Figure 8.31 A ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar step-heating release spectrum of a basalt from Grena...Figure 8.32 Variation of ¹⁴²Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd in terrestrial materials and meteorites...Figure 8.33 ³⁶Cl/Cl age of groundwater in the Milk River aquifer in Alberta,...Figure 8.34 Cosmic ray exposure age distribution in iron meteorites. Sevente...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Periodic Table of the Elements illustrating the traditional stabl...Figure 9.2 Energy-level diagram for the hydrogen molecule. Fundamental vibr...Figure 9.3 (a) The three modes of motion for a diatomic molecule. Rotations ...Figure 9.4 Fractionation factor, α= (¹⁸O/¹⁶O)_CO/(¹⁸O/¹⁶O)_O2, calculated from...Figure 9.5 Calculated value of α_18O for CO₂–H₂O, shown vs. 1/T and 1/T ² . Da...Figure 9.6 Fractionation of isotope ratios during Rayleigh and equilibrium ...Figure 9.7 Oxygen isotopic compositions in the stratosphere and troposphere...Figure 9.8 Variation of Δ₄₇ of biogenic carbonates with the temperature in w...Figure 9.9 Oxygen isotope fractionation for several mineral pairs as a func...Figure 9.10 Sulfur isotope fractionation between H₂S_(aq) and various sulfur ...Figure 9.11 Variation of δ¹⁸O in precipitation as a function of mean annual...Figure 9.12 Process of Rayleigh fractionation and the decreasing δ¹⁸O in ra...Figure 9.13 Northern hemisphere variation in δD and δ¹⁸O in precipitation a...Figure 9.14 Carbon isotopic composition in terrestrial materials. From Wagne...Figure 9.15 Ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) carboxylation, the reaction by whi...Figure 9.16 Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylation, the reaction by which C₄ pla...Figure 9.17 Chemical pathways in C₄ photosynthesis.Figure 9.18 Depth profile of total dissolved inorganic carbon and δ¹³C in t...Figure 9.19 Dependence of nitrogen isotope fractionation by bacteria and di...Figure 9.20 Isotopic fractionations of hydrogen during primary production i...Figure 9.21 Relationship between δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N among the principal classes ...Figure 9.22 Values of δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N in various marine and terrestrial organ...Figure 9.23 δ¹³C in carbonates from paleosols of the Potwar Plateau in Paki...Figure 9.24 δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N of various foodstuffs and of diets reconstructed ...Figure 9.25 Cartoon illustrating how δ¹⁸O of the ocean changes between glac...Figure 9.26 Late Pleistocene average δ¹⁸O_VPDB of benthic foraminifera in 57...Figure 9.27 Illustration of the Milankovitch parameters. The eccentricity i...Figure 9.28 Gain and phase model of Imbrie, relating variations in eccentri...Figure 9.29 δD of ice in the EPICA Dome C ice core (upper line) compared wi...Figure 9.30 Antarctic temperature variation calculated from the EPICA ice c...Figure 9.31 δ¹⁸O in paleosol carbonate nodules from the Potwar Plateau in n...Figure 9.32 Relationship between δD and δ¹⁸O in modern meteoric water and k...Figure 9.33 δD and δ¹⁸O in meteoric hydrothermal systems. Closed circles sh...Figure 9.34 δ¹⁸O as a function of W/R and Δ computed from eqn. 9.83.Figure 9.35 δ¹⁸O variations in the Bohemia Mining District, Oregon. Note th...Figure 9.36 δ³⁴S_CDT in various terrestrial materials. Arrows show the mean v...Figure 9.37 δ³⁴S_CDT of sulfide in ore deposits. Volcanogenic massive sulfide...Figure 9.38 Δ³³S in sulfur through time. Mass independently fractionated su...Figure 9.39 Oxygen isotope ratios in olivines and clinopyroxenes from mantl...Figure 9.40 δ¹⁸O in young, fresh basalts. Dashed line is at the mean of MOR...Figure 9.41 δD in MORB and in mantle phlogopites and amphiboles. The MORB a...Figure 9.42 Carbon isotope ratios in mantle and mantle-derived materials. D...Figure 9.43 Isotopic composition of nitrogen in rocks and minerals of the c...Figure 9.44 Plot of δ¹⁸O versus fraction of magma solidified during fractio...Figure 9.45 δ¹⁸O as a function of SiO₂ in a tholeiitic suite from the Galap...Figure 9.46 Variation in δ¹⁸O of a magma undergoing AFC versus amount cryst...Figure 9.47 Boron isotopic composition of terrestrial materials and chondri...Figure 9.48 (a) Comparison of calculated atmospheric CO₂ based on ocean pH de...Figure 9.49 Li isotopic composition of terrestrial materials and chondrites...Figure 9.50 Calcium isotope ratios in terrestrial materials and meteorites....Figure 9.51 Silicon isotopic composition of terrestrial and solar system mat...Figure 9.52 Variation of δ³⁰Si and dissolved silica concentration with depth...Figure 9.53 Iron isotopes ratios in terrestrial materials and meteorites.Figure 9.54 δ⁵⁶Fe (red) and Fe concentration profiles in the ocean. (a) Nort...Figure 9.55 Mercury isotope fractionations and isotope compositions in terre...

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 The Hertzsprung–Russell diagram of the relationship between lumi...Figure 10.2 Solar system abundance of the elements relative to silicon as a ...Figure 10.3 Compositional evolution during cosmological nucleosynthesis. ⁷Be...Figure 10.4 Evolutionary path of the core of star of 25 solar masses (after ...Figure 10.5 Schematic diagram of stellar structure at the onset of the super...Figure 10.6 Rings of glowing gas surrounding the site of the supernova explo...Figure 10.7 Diagram of the r-process path on a Z versus N diagram. The r-pro...Figure 10.8 Z versus N diagram showing production of isotopes by the r-, s- ...Figure 10.9 Comparison of relative abundances in cosmic rays and the solar s...Figure 10.10 View of part of the chart of the nuclides. Mass numbers of stab...Figure 10.11 Relative abundance of major types of meteorite falls. The small...Figure 10.12 NWA869, a brecciated L-4 ordinary chondrite. Both chondrules an...Figure 10.13 Ratio of reduced and oxidized iron to Si in chondrites. Carbona...Figure 10.14 Abundances of the elements in CI carbonaceous chondrites versus...Figure 10.15 Silicon- and CI-normalized abundances of key elements in the ma...Figure 10.16 Variation in Fe/Mn and Fe/Mg ratios in achondrites and lunar ba...Figure 10.17 Phase diagram for iron–nickel alloy. After Wasson (1974).Figure 10.18 Co–Au and Ga–Au plots illustrating the compositional distinctio...Figure 10.19 Summary of high-precision Pb ages of Allende CAIs, ordinary cho...Figure 10.20 Correlation of the ⁵³ Cr/ ⁵² Cr ratio with ⁵⁵ Mn/ ⁵² Cr ratio in incl...Figure 10.21 Comparison of Al-Mg isotope systematics for two different meteo...Figure 10.22 Time scale of events in the early solar system based on calibra...Figure 10.23 Cosmic ray exposure ages of ordinary chondrites and SNC achondr...Figure 10.24 Comparison of the laboratory-determined reflectance spectrum of...Figure 10.25 Photograph of the asteroid 4 Vesta taken by the NASA DAWN space...Figure 10.26 Ceres as photographed by NASA's DAWN spacecraft. Bright spots h...Figure 10.27 Neon isotopic compositions in a step-heating experiment on Orgu...Figure 10.28 The isotopic composition of Kr and Xe of the Xe-HL component in...Figure 10.29 Isotopic composition of C and N in SiC from Murchison (CM2) met...Figure 10.30 Variation of O isotope ratios in meteorites: CO, CK, etc., carb...Figure 10.31 Isotopic variations in meteorites. ε ⁵⁰ Ti, ε⁵⁴Cr and ε⁵⁰Ca are t...Figure 10.32 Heavy element isotopic variations in meteorites. ε⁹²Mo and ε¹⁰⁰Figure 10.33 The Great Nebula in Orion, shown in a Hubble Space Telescope ph...Figure 10.34 Cartoon illustrating the X-wind model. As a result of interacti...Figure 10.35 Two Hubble Space Telescope views of the T-Tauri star DG Tau B. ...Figure 10.36 Condensation sequence of a gas with solar composition. Fast coo...Figure 10.37 Simplified mineralogical condensation sequence. After McSween (...Figure 10.38 Total alkalis and FeO/MgO ratios as a function of SiO₂ in Marti...Figure 10.39 The processes involved in the formation of chondrites and their...Figure 10.40 The Grand Tack model. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are r...Figure 10.41 Rare earth patterns of representative lunar rocks. Based on Tay...Figure 10.42 Highlights of lunar chronology.Figure 10.43 Difference between ε_W of Earth and Moon (Δ) versus the age of t...

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 The PREM model of seismic velocities and density variation throu...Figure 11.2 Ternary diagram illustrating ultramafic rock nomenclature based ...Figure 11.3 Modal mineralogy of peridotite xenoliths in the Deep Lithosphere...Figure 11.4 Upper mantle phase diagram.Figure 11.5 Mineral assemblages in the upper 1000 km of the mantle. After Ri...Figure 11.6 The structure of bridgmanite (MgSiO₃). The structure consists of...Figure 11.7 Structure of the post-perovskite phase in the lowermost mantle. ...Figure 11.8 Cross-section of the Earth illustrating the two LLSVPs at the ba...Figure 11.9 Variation of Mg/Si as a function of Al/Si in terrestrial mantle ...Figure 11.10 Correlation of SiO₂, Al₂O₃, and CaO with MgO in peridotites fro...Figure 11.11 Abundances of the elements in the bulk silicate Earth (Table 11...Figure 11.12 Dependence of experimentally determined liquid metal–liquid sil...Figure 11.13 Rare earth patterns of mid-ocean ridge basalts and oceanic isla...Figure 11.14 ε_Nd versus ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁷Sr in MORB and selected OIB from the PetDB an...Figure 11.15 ε_Nd versus ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb in mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB) and se...Figure 11.16 Mass fraction of the depleted mantle (DMM) calculated from eqn....Figure 11.17 “Spider diagram” displaying concentrations of trace elements no...Figure 11.18 Cartoon illustrating the oceanic crustal recycling model of Hof...Figure 11.19 Mass independently fractionated sulfur isotopes diamonds from t...Figure 11.20 ³He/⁴He vs. ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr in MORB and OIB. High ³He/⁴He in many OIB...Figure 11.21 ¹²⁹Xe/¹³⁰Xe vs. ¹³⁶Xe/¹³⁰Xe in MORB and oceanic island basalts....Figure 11.22 Correlation between tungsten isotopic anomalies (μ_182W) ...Figure 11.23 Olivine Mg#s in peridotite xenoliths from the Kaapvaal and Slav...Figure 11.24 Probability functions for Re−Os model rhenium depletion ages me...Figure 11.25 REE patterns in garnets from a lherzolite xenolith (solid black...Figure 11.26 ε_Nd versus γ_Os in xenoliths from the subcontinental lithosphere...Figure 11.27 Cross-section of typical oceanic crust (not to scale). Numbers ...Figure 11.28 Na₂O and FeO vs. MgO in MORB from various regions of the mid-oc...Figure 11.29 Regional average Fe_8.0. and Na_8.0 versus axial depth in the mid...Figure 11.30 Variation of MgO and FeO in partial melts of mantle peridotite....Figure 11.31 (a) Pressure–temperature relationship of adiabatically rising m...Figure 11.32 Estimates of major element concentrations in the upper continen...Figure 11.33 Rare earth patterns of Post-Archean Australian Shale (PAAS) com...Figure 11.34 Seismic velocity structure of the continental crust, illustrati...Figure 11.35 Correlation between measured seismic velocity (v_P) and SiO₂ con...Figure 11.36 Comparison of chondrite-normalized rare earth patterns in upper...Figure 11.37 Enrichment of incompatible elements relative to bulk silicate E...Figure 11.38 Comparison of rare earth patterns of the total oceanic (estimat...Figure 11.39 Comparison of the incompatible element enrichments of the conti...Figure 11.40 Isotopic provinces, based on crustal residence times (τ_DM) of t...Figure 11.41 Initial ε_Nd as a function of crystallization age for igneous ro...Figure 11.42 (a) Histogram of more than 400,000 U-Pb zircon ages. Data from ...Figure 11.43 Estimated volume of juvenile crustal preserved as a function of...Figure 11.44 Statistical distribution of the chemistry of continental igneou...Figure 11.45 Normalized incompatible enrichments of average MORB (Table 11.7...Figure 11.46 AFM (A: K₂O + Na₂O; F: FeO + MnO; M: MgO) diagram illustrating ...Figure 11.47 Correlation of Ca_6.0 and Na_6.0 with crustal thickness in island...Figure 11.48 Rare earth element patterns of some typical island arc volcanic...Figure 11.49 Relative alkali–alkaline earth enrichment of IAV illustrated by...Figure 11.50 Pb isotope ratios in island arc volcanics. Fields for the South...Figure 11.51 Relationship between Ba/Na_6.0 and Th/Na_6.0 in volcanic rocks fr...Figure 11.52 (a) Ba/La versus La/Sm_N (subscript N denotes the chondrite-norm...Figure 11.53 Experimentally based phase diagram for the system peridotite + ...Figure 11.54 Cross-section of a subduction zone illustrating island-arc magm...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Phylogenetic relationships among organisms. The eubacteria and t...Figure 12.2 (a) Simple n-alkanes or chain hydrocarbons. The suffix “-ane” is...Figure 12.3 Some simple and branched hydrocarbon chains.Figure 12.4 Some simple doubly and triply-bonded hydrocarbons.Figure 12.5 Two representations of the benzene ring, the foundation of aroma...Figure 12.6 Important functional groups found in organic compounds.Figure 12.7 Some examples of compounds formed by substituting functional gro...Figure 12.8 Examples of functional groups formed by replacing one carbon ato...Figure 12.9 Shorthand structural representation of 3-n-hexene and retinol. C...Figure 12.10 Some simple sugars. (a) linear glucose, (b) cyclic glucose, (c)...Figure 12.11 (a) Three of the 20 common amino acids that can combine to form...Figure 12.12 (a) The structure of pyrimidine and purine groups, essential co...Figure 12.13 A triglyceride fat formed from the alcohol glycerol and three m...Figure 12.14 Terpenoids. (a) Isoprene, the building block of all terpenoids....Figure 12.15 (a) Squalene, the precursor to a variety of terpenoids, includi...Figure 12.16 The Calvin cycle of dark reactions for the production of glucos...Figure 12.17 Illustration of the Krebs cycle, or citric acid cycle, in which...Figure 12.18 Average concentration of dissolved, particulate, and total orga...Figure 12.19 Components of dissolved organic carbon in typical river water. ...Figure 12.20 Black lines show the absorbance, the fraction of light absorbed...Figure 12.21 Van Krevelen diagram showing composition of various biomolecule...Figure 12.22 (a) Dissolved organic matter as a function of depth from the no...Figure 12.23 Comparison of titration curves of salicylic and humic acid. The...Figure 12.24 Examples of rings formed by chelates.Figure 12.25 (a) Copper salicylate complex. The Cu ion is bound to both the ...Figure 12.26 Disruption of water molecules by a large nonpolar organic molec...Figure 12.27 (a) Soil/water adsorption partition coefficients for a variety ...Figure 12.28 Adsorption partition coefficient for 1,4-dichlorobenzene plotte...Figure 12.29 Adsorption of humic acid on δ-Al₂O₃ as a function of pH. After ...Figure 12.30 Rate of ligand-promoted dissolution of δ-Al₂O₃ as a function of...Figure 12.31 The role of bacteria in the cycling of carbon, nitrogen, and su...Figure 12.32 Top: probability density functions of activation energies deter...Figure 12.33 Structure of methane clathrate. Red atoms are oxygen, white are...Figure 12.34 Phase diagram for the stability of methane clathrate in marine ...Figure 12.35 (a) Deoxophylloerythroetioporphyrin (DPEP), a derivative of the...Figure 12.36 Transformation of biomolecules to hydrocarbon biomarkers during...Figure 12.37 The relationship between biomarkers and the tree of life. Based...Figure 12.38 (a) Stereoisomers (enantiomers) of lactic acid; the two version...Figure 12.39 Kerogen maceral groups liptinite, exinite, vitrinite, and inert...Figure 12.40 H/C and O/C ratios of the three types of kerogen. Open triangle...Figure 12.41 Isotopic composition of methane from various sources. Biogenic ...Figure 12.42 Atmospheric CO₂ concentration during the Miocene calculated fro...Figure 12.43 General scheme for hydrocarbon generation as a function of dept...Figure 12.44 Ternary diagrams representing the composition of crude oils. (a...Figure 12.45 Distribution of n-alkanes in different crude oils. After Tissot...Figure 12.46 Chemical evolution of coals on a van Krevelen diagram. After Ki...Figure 12.47 Chemical evolution of lignite to coal. After Hatcher and Cliffo...Figure 12.48 The carbon cycle. Numbers in italic show the amount of carbon (...Figure 12.49 Comparison of CO₂ in bubbles (gray shows analytical uncertainti...Figure 12.50 Feedback loops in the long-term carbon cycle. Dark arrows repre...Figure 12.51 Concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide over the Phanerozoi...Figure 12.52 Concentrations of atmospheric CO₂ and CH₄ measured at the Scrip...Figure 12.53 Annual globally averaged land and ocean surface temperatures si...

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Important biogeochemical redox couples in natural waters.Figure 13.2 Contours of dissolved Fe activity as a function of pε and pH com...Figure 13.3 (a) Concentration of acid-leachable Mn in Lake Michigan sediment...Figure 13.4 Soil profile, illustrating the O, A, B, and C horizons described...Figure 13.5 Concentration profiles in a podzol developed on a Pleistocene be...Figure 13.6 Idealized weathering profiles. The soil surface is z ₀. (a) show ...Figure 13.7 Plagioclase abundances in the soil of a 194 ka beach terrace nea...Figure 13.8 Comparison of plagioclase abundances in the weathering profiles ...Figure 13.9 Left frames compared the observed (solid points) abundances of a...Figure 13.10 CIA, CIW, and WIP weathering indices and density in soils devel...Figure 13.11 Watershed mass balance. Illustration of the mass balance approa...Figure 13.12 Stability diagram for the system H₂O, K⁺, H⁺, and H₂SiOFigure 13.13 (a) Stability diagram as in Figure 13.12. (b) Reaction progress...Figure 13.14 Ternary plot of SiO₂, Cl+ SO₄, and HCO₃ used by Stallard and Ed...Figure 13.15 Chemical evolution of saline lakes and seas as a consequence of...

14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Typical temperate region temperature, salinity, and density vari...Figure 14.2 A two-box model of the ocean and the fluxes between them.Figure 14.3 Box model of ocean circulation through the major ocean basins, a...Figure 14.4 Histogram of elemental abundances in seawater. In addition to H ...Figure 14.5 Variation of potential temperature, salinity, and oxygen concent...Figure 14.6 Variation of temperature, ΣCO₂, pH, and O₂ with depth in the sou...Figure 14.7 (a) measured in the same water column as Figure 14.6 (R/V Ron ...Figure 14.8 Typical depth profiles of two primary nutrients, nitrate and pho...Figure 14.9 Depth profiles of Si (a) and (b) Ge in the Pacific (red lines) a...Figure 14.10 Depth profiles of micronutrients Fe and Zn in the North Atlanti...Figure 14.11 Depth profiles of particle-reactive metals Mn, Pb, and Al in th...Figure 14.12 (a) A plot of salinity against potential temperature is linear ...Figure 14.13 Marine geochemistry of Mn, illustrating the range of possible s...Figure 14.14 Use of concentration–salinity diagrams in estuaries.Figure 14.15 Concentrations of dissolved Pb, Ni, and Fe measured in the Giro...Figure 14.16 (a) Shale-normalized are earth patterns (Section 7.2.2.4) in th...Figure 14.17 An active hydrothermal chimney (black smoker) in the caldera of...Figure 14.18 (a) Ca, Si(OH)₄, Fe, and K vs. Mg in hydrothermal fluids from T...Figure 14.19 Some of the important reactions occurring in mid-ocean ridge hy...Figure 14.20 Pressure-composition phase diagram for the system H₂O—NaCl. A s...Figure 14.21 Global distribution of dust, sea salt, and carbon and sulfates ...Figure 14.22 Variation of Ca²⁺ (black line) and (red line) concentrati...Figure 14.23 Shale-normalized average Mn nodule and crust rare earth pattern...Figure 14.24 Photograph of a manganese nodule recovered from the Pacific Oce...Figure 14.25 Concentrations of dissolved nitrate, manganese (a), and iron (b...Figure 14.26 Li concentrations in pore waters (red circles) and sediments (b...Figure 15.27 U concentration in sediment (black squares) and pore waters (re...

15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Chemical stratigraphy of the Bushveld Intrusion. Data from compi...Figure 15.2 Bulk silicate Earth-normalized platinum group element and gold c...Figure 15.3 Chromite bands of Upper Group 3 (UG3) alternating with anorthosi...Figure 15.4 Experimentally determined zinc speciation and solubility in NaCl...Figure 15.5 Experimentally determined cobalt speciation and solubility in hy...Figure 15.6 Experimentally determined copper speciation and solubility in hy...Figure 15.7 Gold solubility and speciation at 100 MPa as a function of tempe...Figure 15.8 Cross-section of a typical porphyry copper deposit illustrating ...Figure 15.9 Chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and galena mineralization associated w...Figure 15.10 Solubility of Cu and Zn sulfides. (a) Solubilities in fluids at...Figure 15.11 Hypothetical illustration of a mafic-siliciclastic volcanogenic...Figure 15.12 Model for the formation of Pb-Zn deposits in the Viburnum Distr...Figure 15.13 Archean (2.7 Ga) Algoma-type banded iron formation from the Tem...Figure 15.14 Shale- and chondrite-normalized rare earth patterns of Archean ...Figure 15.15 δ⁵⁶Fe in marine sediments through time. Highly variable iron is...Figure 15.16 The Salar del Hombre Muerto. Photo courtesy of Terry Jordan.Figure 15.17 Simplified Pourbaix or pε-pH diagram showing the conditions in ...Figure 15.18 Rare earth patterns of the Mountain Pass and Bayan Obo ore depo...Figure 15.19 Rare earth patterns in the soil profile of the Zudong laterite ...Figure 15.20 Primary and secondary dispersion around ore deposits and target...Figure 15.21 Electrochemical dispersion above a buried sulfide ore deposit. ...Figure 15.22 Cartoon illustrating how stream sampling followed by soi...Figure 15.23 Algae bloom in western Lake Erie photographed by Moderate Resol...Figure 15.24 The Río Tinto in southern Spain is discolored by the dissolved ...Figure 15.25 Illustration of some containment strategies to prevent acid min...Figure 15.26 Concentration of lead in ice from the Camp Century ice core fro...Figure 15.27 Atmospheric concentration of Pb in air over the United States s...Figure 15.28 Global mercury cycle. From UN Environment (2019).Figure 15.29 Average concentration of sulfate dissolved in rain across Europ...Figure 15.30 Change in nitrate wet deposition over the eastern US between 19...Figure 15.31 Monthly measurements of dissolved nitrate, phosphate, pH, ANC (...