Читать книгу The History of Kazakhstan from the Earliest Period to the Present time. Volume I - Zhanat Kundakbayeva - Страница 10

According to numerous writing sources in the XII-the beginning of the XIII-centuries the a territory of modern Kazakhstan was occupied by a lot of state unions of Turkic speaking tribes-of the Kipchak, Kangly (Khanglis), Qarluqss, Naimans. And also there were two empires on the territory of Central Asia – the Kara Khitai Empire and The Khwarezmid Empire.

The main part of the territory of present Kazakhstan was a part of possessions of the Kipchaks. Beginning with the end of the XIth century Kazakhstan's Steppe from the Irtysh River to the Volga was inhabited by the Kipchaks. The historical role of the Kipchaks, peculiarities of their political structure and socio-economic development and also on the international arena has been studied earlier. That's why not paying attention on these questions, we will consider the political map of other regions of present Kazakhstan before the Mongols' invasion.

As you know the territory of present South-Eastern, Southern Kazakhstan and territories of Maverannahr entered the structure of the Kara Khitais possessions. The borders of this Empire were not constant, they often changed. After the collapse of the Tang Dynasty in 907 AD the Chinese ruling class retreated from south and control of Northern China fell into hands of non-Chinese people. In 916 the Khitais – a semi-nomadic tribe from southern Mongolia, conquered Northern China and established the Liao Dynasty of northern China. In the early XIIth century the Khitais were overthrown by the Jurchids, who replaced the Liao Dynasty with the Jin Dynasty. Some time in the mid of the XIIth century the Tanghuts, a Tibetan people, established the Xi Xia Empire in western China. Meanwhile the Chinese rulers established the Song Dynasty in the south of the Yellow River (Huang He) in 906. Thus, during the rise of the Genghis Khan China was divided into three states.

After the Khitais were overthrown from Northern China, a part of their nobility fled westward to the south of Lake Balkhash. There they established the Kara Khitai Empire. The west of the Kara Khitai was the Khwarazmian Empire of Persia, which formed in the late of the XIIth century.

The formation of the Kara Khitai Empire was caused by the invasion of nomadic tribes from Central Asia. It was founded by the kidans who escaped from Chzhurzhen expansions. In the memory of Lyo Kidan Empire they named. The capital of the Si Lyo – Balacagun was situated on the Chu river. Developed agricultural areas of Fergana and Maverannahr entered the State structure. By the end of the XIIth century began weakening Si Lyo's power. In 1210 the Kara Khitais were defeated by the The Khwarezmid's army. As a result Maverannahr was separated from the Kara Khitai Empire. That period the Naimans' ruler Kuchluk who had escaped from Genghis Khan took his refuge at the Kara Khitai ruler and even had got married his daughter.

Having gartered the Naimans, who had escaped from the Mongols Kuchluk began raiding the Kara Khitai's territories. Soon he managed to take the control over all the Gurhan's possessions. Formally Gurhan remained on the throne but the real governor became Kuchluk (as an adviser of Kara Khitai's governor). After Gurhan's death, power officially passed to Kuchluk who ruled till the Mongol invasion 1215.

In the Northern part of Semirechye there was the Qarluqs's small possession the Muslim rules of which had the title of aprslan-khan – traditional for one of the Karahanid's brunch. The Qarluqs's principality of the Northen Semirechye was the vassal of the Karakhitais.

In the Northern part of Semirechye (also Dzhetysu; from Kazakh zheti [“seven”] and su [“water”]) was the Qarluqs's small possession the Muslim rules of which had the title of arslan-khan- traditional for one of the Kara-Khanid's brunch. The Qarluqs's principality of the Northen Semirechye was the Kara Khitai's vassal.

Before the Mongol invasion territories between the Talas, Chu and Issyk Kul lake were occupied by the Kanglys. Base in the Syr-Darya with it's fortified cities and adjoining areas, and also Maverannahr with oblast adjoining to it belonged to KKhwarezm Shah Muhammad.

In the ethnogenetic processes of the beginning of the II millennium the important role played the Naimans and the Kireits. As the analyses of the Kazakh genealogical legends show, they entered the Kazakh Nationality. But their appearance on the territory of Kazakhstan was connected with the escape from Genghis Khan at the beginning of the XIIIth century.

If to speak about economic development of Kazakhstan before the Mongol invasion two ways of life have been presented: nomadic and settled-agricultural. The center of settled civilization of Kazakhstan at that time was the South, especially Semirechye.

The Xth-XIth centuries were the time of growth of cities in Kazakhstan both old – Otrar, Taraz, Isfidzhab, Kulan, Yangikent and new – Kayalik, Ashnas, Barlychkent. Just in the Ili valley in The Xth – XIIIth centuries appeared over 56 cities. Till the Mongolian invasion in the south of Kazakhstan and in Semirechye widely spread the monetary trade. Two Monetary courts are known- Taraz and Isfidzhab.

In the second decade of the XIIIth century cities of Southern Kazakhstan passed under Khwarezmia's power. Khwarezm has been known also as Chorasmia, Khwarezmia, Khwarizm, Khwarazm, KKhwarezm, Khoresm, Khorasam, Harezm, Khwarezm, and CKhwarezm. But Semirechye was under the Kara Khitai's power and their vassals. Spiritual culture of Kazakhstan a component of which was religion corresponded to the high level of economic relations.

Worship of the Heaven (Tengri) and the Earth-water (Jern-sou), and also, a female deity to Umaj-patroness of the centre and children was a basis of religion of the Turkic people. Along with actually Turkic beliefs among the population were spread other religious systems: the Buddhism, The Manichaean religion, Christianity and Islam. Especially at the end of the XIIth-beginning of the XIII centuries Islam role in system of beliefs of the population amplified. As a whole, it should be noted, that religious notions of the settled and nomadic population were characterized by variety. In the X-XII centuries on the territory of Kazakhstan and Central Asia in the conditions of similarities of economic-cultural types, languages and life likeness of the Kipchaks, Kanglus, Qarluqss, Kara Khitais, Naimans and Kireits took place the process of ethnic consolidation of these tribes and tribal unions, main knots of ethogenesis, formed historical preconditions of formating nations. At such level of social and economic, ethno political and cultural development found the people of Kazakhstan invasion of the Genghis Khan.

The rise of Genghis Khan

The rise of Genghis Khan was one of the most dramatic in history, and has hardly, if ever, been paralleled in history. No one rose from such a low position: as a part of a family eating roots and rodents for survival; and yet end up achieving so much in the end

Much of what we know about Genghis' early life comes from the famous Mongol script, The Secret History of the Mongols, which is a record of Mongol history written in 1240. The bulk of the Secret History describes Genghis Khan's early life and is written with numerous dialogues between characters. When the Persian historian Rashid ad-Din wrote The History of the Tribes, he made numerous contradictions with the Secret History, which he had access to when he wrote his script. However, the contradictions are centered on details, and there is a good agreement between the two sources on the general flow of the story.

The Early Childhood of Temujin

Temujin, the one who would become Genghis Khan, was born in 1167. His father was Yesugei, the head of the Kiyad sub-clan and leader of a small coalition of other Mongol clans. When Temujin was nine, his father brought him to visit the Okhunugud tribe. During the visit, Yesugei met Borte, the daughter of the Okhunugud leader (Dei the wise), and found her to be quite intriguing. Yesugei proposed marriage between her and Temujin, which Dei gladly accepted. As a steppe tradition, Temujin would be left with his future wife's family for a period of time.

Leaving Temujin behind, Yesugei proudly rode back to his camp. However, misfortune struct. On the way, he met a group of men and stopped for a feast. Little did he know that they were Tartars, archenemies of the Mongols. While they feasted together, the Tartars secretly poisoned Yesugei's food. When Yesugei finally returned to his camp, he was already near death. Temujin was summoned back to assume leadership of the coalition, but the other clan leaders were not impressed by his young age. The other clan leaders of the coalition abandoned Temujin's camp, and soon, almost all of his Kiyad clansmen left as well. In the end, all that was left of Temujin's camp was his mother, his four siblings, his two stepbrothers, and a family servant.

Temujin and his ragtag clan took a life of hardship, living off of plant roots and what little there could be found. One day, when Temujin and his brother Kasar caught a figh, his half brothers snatched it out of his hand and ate it for themselves. In such desperate situation, a single fish was valuable, and could mean the difference between survival and starvation. Temujin was outraged. He got his bow and shot his half brother, Bekter, at close range. At an early age, Temujin had developed the personality that would mark his personality when he would become Genghis Khan. Although we often think of him being exceedingly brutal against his enemies, he was also exceedingly kind to those loyal to him. Temujin pardoned his other half brother, and the two would become good friends.

Despite the hardships and the murder of his half brother, Temujin and his family lived on. Temujin had many adventures, including capture by the Tayichigud clan, and dealing with raiding horse thieves. However, Temujin did not seem to be weakened by any of these events. In fact, he kept getting stronger. At age 15, he was old enough to return to Dei's camp and claim his wife, Borte. Without doubt, Temujin had great personal strength, but he still had no political power, and a private army numbering only five men. Shortly though, this would change.

One day, the Merkids Tribe attacked Temujin's camp. Temujin and his family fled safely into the forests, but Borte was captured. However, the Merkids were a strong tribe and he was in no position of taking them on. But Temujin realized long ago that his father had an anda (Blood sworn brothers), Toghrul Khan of the Keyerids. Temujin traveled to Toghrul and asked for his help. Since Toghrul had such great memories with Yesugei, he agreed to aid the youngster. He raised an army of 1500 men and enlisted his ally, Jamugha, who brought an additional 1500 men. Meanwhile, Temujin sent messages to the former clansmen that used to serve under his father and was able assemble a force of about 500 men. Temujin' army was by far the smallest, but it was the first one ever in his command. The three men marched together in front of their armies and dealt a crushing blow against the Merkids. During the battle, Temujin recovered Borte.

Through alliances and friendships, Temujin was able to hold military power for the first. Coincidentally, one of leaders in trio alliance, Jamugha, was also a Mongol, and had been anda with Temujin during childhood. Jamugha and Temujin became reunited friends and together they gained control over a good amount of Mongol clans. They became a force to be feared, and to an extent it seemed as if though the fallen Mongol kingdom was in the stage of resurrection.

One day, while Temujin and Jamugha were riding together in front of their men (in the steppes, whole nomadic tribes often traveled together as a single unit), Jamugha suggested to Temujin to stop and pitch tent. Temujin, however, "did not understand" Jamugha's words, and after "asking his mother what Jamugha meant", he decided to keep marching while Jamugha stopped. As the two leaders separated, the Mongols were dumbstruck, but it was clear that they had to choose which leader to follow. Some went with Temujin and some went with Jamugha. The Mongol that went with Temujin swore loyalty and in return, Temujin swore to lead them to glory. Shortly later, in a huge assembly, Temujin was proclaimed Genghis Khan (1187). Obviously, Temujin had used Jamugha and Toghrul first as a protector and then as took advantage of the situation and used them as a source from which to "steal" power.

Almost immediately after Temujin was proclaimed Khan, one of Jamugha's tribesman stole horses from tribesmen under Genghis Khan. This simple event escalated into war. Fighting broke out and Genghis Khan was defeated. What happened next is a confusing timeframe of ten years unmentioned in the Secret History. According to Rashid ad-Din, Genghis khan was deserted by his followers, and was later captured by his enemies. Possibly, he was exiled to China. He returned several years later, defeated Jamugha and re-secured power. Some time around Genghis' return, Toghrul Khan lost the throne in his tribe and was exiled to Kara-Khitai. He was then restored to power by Genghis Khan.

The Secret history does not describe these events, but instead, skips ahead a decade later to 1198 to, in which Genghis and Toghrul victoriously campaigned against the Tartars. Meanwhile, Jamugha created powerful alliances with the Merkids, Naimans and the Oyirads. Similar to how Temujin was proclaimed Genghis Khan, Jamugha was named Gur Khan.

Tension between Jamugha and Genghis grew again. Finally, Jamugha gathered his allies and marched against Genghis for a decisive battle at Koyitan. Upon hearing the threat, Genghis called Toghrul Khan to join him again his anda. Toghrul agreed, despite the fact that he and Jamugha once allies. The two armies met at Koyiten for a great battle but weather became disfavorable and suddenly the two armies were caught in a snowstorm. The battle was called off and both armies decided to withdraw. However, during the withdrawal, luck was with Genghis and he was able to catch the Tayichigud, an old rival clan to Genghis now serving under Jamugha. After a fierce battle the Tayichiguds were destroyed.

The long awaited clash between Genghis and Jamugha was broken up, and the two sides ceased fire. But Genghis did not waste time enjoying peace. He attacked the already weakened Tartars, and in 1202, the long time enemy tribe were finally defeated and put to the sword. Meanwhile, Toghrul Khan was becoming old and weary. Convinced by his son, the tired and confused old khan decided that it was no longer wise to remain as Genghis' ally. Toghrul plotted to assassinate Genghis at an assembly, but unfortunately for him, his plans were overheard and reported it to Genghis.

Genghis decided to move eastward to a safer location. As Genghis rode eastward, an army appeared on the horizon with Toghrul and Jamugha riding at its front. Genghis was forced to fight. He was heavily outnumbered but was able to hold off the onslaught until nightfall, where he was able to escape to the Khalka River. Genghis' army was heavily damaged, but along the river, he met various friendly tribes who decided to join his ranks, including the Okhunuguds (the clan of his wife).

While Genghis was rebuilding his army, he suddenly discovered that Toghrul's had followed his path and was closing in. This time, Genghis decided it was time to eliminate Toghrul. He quickly assembled his men at night and surrounded Toghrul's camp in a surprise attack. The battle lasted three days but in the end Toghrul was finally defeated. Toghrul's Kereyids tribesmen were slaughtered and the survivors were assimilated into Genghis' tribe. Toghrul himself escaped but only to be killed later by a patrolling Naiman warrior.

With Toghrul defeated, the only ones left to seriously challenge Genghis were Jamugha and his ally, Tayang Khan of Naimans. In 1204, Genghis assembled his men and marched through the Keluren Valley into Naiman territories. Genghis continued advancing until he reached Mount Khangkharkhan, where the army of Tayang Khan, later joined by Jamugha, awaited him. Genghis and his brothers, with his hounds of war (his generals) led a ferocious attack and Tayang and Jamugha were driven up the mountain. Tayang and Jamugha held out into the night but in the end Genghis was victorious. The Naimans and Jamugha's seven Mongol Clans surrendered and were assimilated into Genghis' "Empire." Jamugha escaped from the battle, but was completely deprived of power and was forced into a life of banditry.

With the Naimans defeated and Jamugha's Mongol clans surrendered, Genghis had nearly gained complete mastery of the steppes. There were only two minor groups left to conquer. There were the Merkids, who had regrouped after suffering several defeated including when Genghis first allied with Toghrul. Finally there were the Oriats, in the extreme north of Mongolia. The Merkids were annihilated shortly after the victory over the Naimans, and the latter, the Oriats, would eventually be defeated later on.

Jamugha, defeated as a Khan, was soon defeated as a bandit leader. His gang of bandits betrayed him and turned him in to Genghis Khan. Although the two had been strong political enemies, Genghis remembered that they were still andas, that "when two men becomes anda, their lives become one." The relationship between Jamugha and Genghis is somewhat interesting. Although they were political rivals, they never considered themselves to be personal enemies. They fought each other only for conquest and control over other people. Now that Jamugha was no longer a political power, Genghis was ready to fully accept Jamugha into his service, but Jamugha declined. He stated that his anda had surpassed him in every way and thus there is no longer a place for him. Jamugha requested an execution and Genghis honored his request. According to the Secret History of the Mongols, he had Jamugha executed without shedding his blood and buried his bones with honor.

The Khuriltai of 1206 – Building the Empire

In the year of the Tiger, 1206, the whole steppes stood watching as the great Khuriltai (assembly) was being held and the implied enthronement of Genghis Khan as emperor of the steppes. As emperor of the steppes, Genghis wanted to ensure the longevity of his empire. It is somewhat of a daunting task, as not so long ago his empire had been a chaotic battleground of many nomadic powers. To do this, Genghis created a system that would stress the unity of the empire, and would wipe out tendencies towards local tribal authorities. The entire population was divided into 95 military units, each responsible for maintaining 1000 warriors. Each of these units had a commander personally assigned by Genghis Khan. During times of war, each commander was expected to effectively assemble a thousand men. Failure to do so would mean removal from office and a new commander from the thousand would be elected. To ensure availability of warriors, every male at the age of fifteen were required for military duty.

Genghis also created various offices of power within his empire, including imperial administrators and the chief justice. Furthermore, he decreed a number of specific laws, including the toleration of religion, exemption of priests in taxation, the prohibition of contaminating running water, and death penalty for crimes such as robbery, adultery, military desertion, and continual bankruptcy of merchants. All of these laws and decrees made by Genghis Khan were compiled into one piece, the Great Yasa. While Genghis is often thought to be a vicious barbarian, there is no doubt that he was also a brilliant statesman.

The new military superstructure ensured a stable and militaristic society, but was not enough to conquer the world. Genghis went on to make several military reforms, including a decimal organization of the army (from units of 10 to 10,000 men), standardization of equipment, a strict system of regularly performed military drill, and a strict system of military laws. All of these regulations installed a sense of unity and maximum discipline to men who already had a lifetime of experience in horsemanship and archery. Every man in the Mongol army was both a lifetime warriors and a soldiers fighting as a part of a group – something rarely achieved before contemporary militaries. The Mongol army soon became the most disciplined, experienced, and fear less force the world had yet to see.

Genghis Khan invasion

Throughout history of the steppes have always been stages for continuous struggle between various nomadic groups. As time passed certain groups were able to rise and gain mastery over the others. However, few have ever been able to create a lasting empire. In the late XIIth century, various Turkish and Mongol-Tungusic tribes roamed the steppes of Mongolia. The Naimans and Kereyids' tribes controlled western Mongolia, the Oirats controlled the north areas, the Merkids controlled the south of Lake Baikal, and the Tartars the east of the River Kerulen. The Mongols were located between the Tartars and the Merkids. These groups are referred to as Tribes. Within these tribes are divisions called clans. Note that the clans within a tribe are not always united, as with the case of the Mongols during the rise of Genghis Khan.

It must also be noted that the common phrase saying that Genghis Khan "united the Mongol tribes" is a misleading statement. This error comes from the lack of distinguishment between Mongols and non-Mongols and between "tribes" and "clans". He united both the Mongol Clans (that used to be a united tribe) and other "non-Mongol" tribes such as the Naimans, (whose clans were united, unlike the Mongols). The nomadic nobility supported the khan only under a condition if war – a constant source of profit would not only stop but on the contrary, would extend. Therefore Genghis – khan became on a way of external conquests.

He had a plan – invasion of the whole Eurasia, to the last sea where the Mongolian horses's hoofs would reach.

In 1207-1211 people of Siberia and Easten Turkestan were subdued by the Mongols. They were – the Yakuts, the Oirats, the Byruats, The Kirgiz, The Uigurs. In that period the Mongols undertook a campaign against The Tangut's State Xī Xià, which was finally defeated in 1227. In 1211 the Mongols began attacking the Jurchens's State – The Jīn Dynasty, which was situated on the Northern Part of China. Here the Mongols destroyed more than 90 cities and in 1215 siezed Beijing. As a result by the 1217– all the territories to the North from the Hanher river had been conquered by the Mongols.

The Mongols in their aggressive policy which was successfully realized during the XIIIth centure had a plan of a campaign to Kazakstan and Central Asia. It would open them the way to Eastern Europe and Fore Asia. It was the reason why Genghis Khan paid great attentions on that campaign and prepared carefully.

After conquering Eastern Turkestan and Semirechye the way to Southern Kazakhstan and Central Asia was opened. The formal casus belli was the events of so-called ‘Utar cathastrophe’. Genghis lost interest in the war in China and instead, turned his attention towards the west. In 1218 he sent his general Chepe westward and conquered the Kara Khitai Empire. But the real issue was with the huge Kwarazmian Empire in Perisa. Hostilities broke out when the Kwarazm Shah attacked a Mongol caravan and humiliated Genghis’s ambassadors by burning their beards. Since Genghis sent the ambassadors for the purpose of making peace, he was outraged. Genghis prepared for the largest operation, he had yet performed and assembled a force that totaled around 90-110,000 men. The total numerical strength of the Kwarazm shah was two to three times greater, but Genghis ' army was better disciplined, and most of all, better led.

The campaign began in September 1219 from the banks of the Irtysh. Accoding to the sources Genghis led his army from the Irtysh to the Syr-Darya across the Semirechye. Approaching Utar Genghis Khan divided his Army. One part headed by Chagatai and Ugedei was left for the siege of Otrar. The second part headed by Juji he sent to the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, the third troops subjugated the towns in upper reaches of the Syr Darya. The main forces of the Mongols headed by him went towards Buhara.

In 1219, Genghis’s sons Chagatai and Ugedei set out to attack the city of Utar, located to the east of the Aral Sea. Meanwhile, Genghis' general Chebe, marched southwestward to protect the left flank during the operation. The main attack, however, was led by Genghis Khan himself, who together with general Subedei, marched through the Kizil Kum desert and outflanked the Kwarazmiam forces. The plan was that the Kizil Kum desert was considered impractical to cross, which made it a great opportunity to surprise the enemy. Genghis and his army disappeared into the desert and suddenly, out of nowhere, he appeared at the city of Bukhara. The city garrison was stunned, and was quickly defeated. Next Genghis marched towards Samarkand, the capital of the Khwarezmian Empire. The magnificent city was heavily fortified and had a garrison of 110,000 men, which vastly outnumbered Genghis ' besieging army. The city was expected to be able to hold out for months, but on March 19, 1220 its walls were breached in just ten days. After the fall of Samarkand, the Mongols overran much of the Empire. The destruction was profound. Cities were leveled and populations were massacred. At the Merv city, accounts described an execution of 700,000. At Samarkand, women were raped and sold into slavery. Devastation was so great that the Kwarazmian Empire itself was nearly wiped away from history. The conquest of the Kwarazm also created another remarkable event. After his defeat, the Khwarezm Shah fled to the west and Subedei followed in pursue with a force of 20,000 men. The Khwarezm Shah died, however, but Subedei went further. He brought his army to the north and defeated a heavily outnumbering Russian and Cuman army at the Khalka River. He went further and attacks the Volga Bulgars before returning back. As said by the famed history Gibbons, Subedei's expedition was one of the most daring expeditions in history, unlikely to be repeated ever again.

During the entire campaign, the Khwarezm Shah failed to assemble an army to fight the Mongols on the battlefield. The Khwarezm strategy relied on its extensive city garrisons that outnumbered the besieging Mongol armies. This of course, failed in every way. The only well organized resistance against the Mongols came from Jalal ad-Din, who after the fall of Samarkand, organized a resistance force on the territory of modern day Afghanistan. At Parwan, he defeated a Mongol force led by one of Ginghis' adopted son, making it the only Mongol defeat in the entire campaign. Genghis chases after Jalal ad-Din and destroyed his army at the Indus River. The defeat of Jalal ad-Din meant the consolidation of rule of Transoxania. However, the southern parts of the Khwarezmian Empire were left unconquered and later turned into a collection of Independent states. It is said that the Mongols decided not to advance when the sight of a unicorn demoralized their vanguard.

At the age approaching sixty, Genghis Khan' health was at a decline. He sought the legendary Daoist monk Changchun for the elixir to Immortality. His wish did not come true, as Changchun had no magical elixir, but Genghis praised his wisdom and the two became good friends. Following the meeting with the Daoist monk, Genghis returned to the administration side of his objectives. Unlike Attila the Hun and Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan realized the importance of a smooth succession after his death. Before he completed his conquest of the Khwarezmian Empire, he had already carefully chosen his son Ugedei to be his successor. After Genghis returned to Mongolia to finish establish the administration structure of his empire, all the matters were in good order, except for the Tanguts. The Tangut Xi Xia Empire had long been defeated by the Mongols, but became more of a tributary rather than being annexed. However, the Tanguts had stopped complying with terms while Genghis was away. In 1226, Genghis Khan led his army against Xi Xia and captured its capital.

In 1221 with subjugating of the Khwarezm the conquest of Central Asia was finished. By 1225 the main Mongolian forces had left for Mongolia. Only the30-thousand group of Zhebe and Subedeja continued the war in the west.

The Kazakh lands as a part of Mongolian uluses

Genghis Khan, according to Dzhuvejni, even in his lifetime distributed special territories named yurts, to each of his sons. In research literature the territories distributed among sons by Genghis Khan is accepted to name apanages or uluses.

The territory of Kazakhstan entered the structure of three Mongolian uluses:

The most part of steppe spaces of the north of the country and the areas from the upper reaches of the Irtysh to Alakul lake and farther to the West to Or and Syr Darya Rivers entered Juji's ulus.

Southern and Southeast Kazakhstan entered Chaghatai's ulus. Besides, outside of modern Kazakhstan that ulus included the following territories: East Turkestan and Maverannahr.

Northeast Kazakhstan was a part of Ugedeja's ulus, which included the territory of Western Mongolia, the area of the Upper Irtysh and Tarbagatai.

During Genghis-khan's lifetime the lands alloted to his sons, were for them only served as source of income for them, but nevertheless they remained themselves subordinated to the head of the empire. After his death the situation had changed. Extensiveness of the Mongolian power, remoteness of a residence of uluses from theball-empire the centre on Orkhon conducted possessors to that the local authorities became the valid power only.

The dynasties began introducing an appanage appanage system, transition to the real power in uluses to the descendants of Genghis Khan's sons raised aspiration among the Genghizid uluses to make their dynasty completely independent, and their uluses Independent possession.

Control questions:

1. What do you know about the origin of the Kidans?

2. Why were strain relations between gurkhans and their vassals in the Ili valley in the middle of the twelfth centuries?

3. Give arguments in favor of the presence on Naimans signs of statehood

4. How did the Turkic traditions influence on the forms of the Mongolian statehood?

5. Compare the characteristics of Genghis Khan according to Raþîd ad-Dîn and Cuvaynî, Juzjani and Abulgazy.