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The formation of the Golden Horde in the Juji Ulus

Until his death in August 1227 Genghis Khan managed to lay the foundation for a new territorial enormous empire, which amounted to earth people, not only lived in the vicinity of Mongolia, and China, Central Asia and the steppes to the west of the Irtysh. Death of Genghis Khan did not change the policy of his successors. They made every effort to fulfill the will of the founder dynasty – to capture new lands.

History of the Golden Horde is directly related to Ulus of the eldest son of Genghis Khan – Juji, which was located in the steppes to the north of Lake Balkhash and the Aral Sea, from the Irtysh to the Yaik. Juji died even before his father Genghis, so the bequeathal passed (in left and right wings) to Juji's sons Orda and Batu. Successor, of Juji who died six months before Genghis Khan, became his son Batu. The circumstances of his accession to the throne were described by Utemish Haji.

According to the decision of the Mongolian kurultai in 1229 Batu was instructed to gain the land located in the West, in the form of compensation for the eastern part of the Ulus, assigned Ugadei (some land to the east of the Irtysh River). But in this campaign the Mongols managed only to reach Yaik. At the Congress of 1235, where the second time the question of the conquest of western land (located in the west of the Ural and Volga rivers) were discussed. Thus, in 1236-1242 took place the western campaign of Mongols. As a result of the campaign the Mongols conquered territory to the west of the Volga River and reached the river Danube. The Mongols destroyed the state Volga Bulgaria in the Middle Volga, Poland, Lithuania, and Czech.

After the campaigne Batu returned to the Volga steppes, where the average over the Volga River had begun building a headquarters – Saray-Batu. That was the beginning of a new Mongolian state – the Golden Horde. It was established on the basis of Ulus Juji and a conquered lands to the west (to the river Danube). Until 1269 the Golden Horde was a member of the Mongol Empire. The Mongol Empire included: Ulus Juji – The Golden Horde, Chagatai Ulus – Chagataid's State, Ulus of Ugedei, and Ulus of Tulyi.

We can choose the following periods in the history of the Golden Horde:

1. 1242-1266. – Period of construction of the State (during the reign of khans Batu1242-1255; Berke 1255-1266).

2. 1266-1312 – the first political crisis in the Golden Horde

3. 1312-1359 – the period of rise of the Golden Horde

4. 1359-1379 – a great sedition in the Golden Horde

5. 1380-1395 – an attempt to restore the unity of the Golden Horde.

6. The first half of the XV century. – The process of disintegration of the Golden Horde.

The Golden Horde was a one of the greaControl states of the middle Ages. Thus, the descendants of Juji ruled a vast territory, covering nearly half of Asia and Europe – from the Irtysh River to the Danube River from the shores of the Black and Caspian Sea to China. The population of the Golden Horde was varied. But the bulk of the population of Golden Horde was Kipchaks living in the steppes till the arrival of the Mongols. Already in XIV century Mongols began to dissolve in Kipchak environment, forgetting their own culture, language, and writing. This was facilitated and occurred at the beginning of XIV century changing religion.

Before considering the formation of the Golden Horde let's clarify the following points:

1. How the Mongols called their state?

2. How did thier neighbors call the State?

According to Mongolian tradition, the head of each of the Mongol states considered the allocation of his or conquered territory as a generic domain, each entering the throne Saray Khans called his state simply "heartland", ie people, given an inheritance to possess it. As for the name the Jujids' state from European and Asian powers, there prevailed a complete lack of coordination. In the Arabic chronicles, it most often named after the Khan ruling at a certain moment, with their respective ethnic clarification: "Berke, the great king of the Tatar", "Tokhto, the king of the Tatar", "Uzbek, the owner of the Nordic countries", "king of Tokhto, the owner of the barn and land Kipchak, "King Desht-i-KipchakTokhto. Sometimes Arabic and Persian authors called the Golden Horde ulus Juchi ulus Batu ulus Berke ulus Uzbeks. European travelers P. Carpini and B. Rubruk use the old term "country of addicts", "ASEA", "The Power of the Tatars. In a letter to Pope Benedict XII Juji's State was called Northern Tartary. In Russian chronicles first identified these State by an ethnic term. Princes riding in the "Tatars of Batu" and return"Tatars. Only in the last decade in the XIII, appeared and firmly adopted a new and unique name "Horde", which lasted until the collapse of the Juji's State.

And among the most striking aspects of the Russian treatment of Juji's ulus has been the designation of its inhabitants as "Tatars." Were the Mongols to be Tatars? What lies behind this term?

First it is necessary to clarify the origins of the name "Mongol," about which opinions differ. According to Chinese annals, this was the name of Genghis Khan's tribe. But Isaac J. Schmidt, a nineteenth-century Moravian missionary, who learned the Mongol language, argued that as Genghis Khan brought together different tribes, he had adopted the term Mongol to impart a sense of unity. Schmidt added that the etymology of Mongol signified "brave, fearless, excellent," a prideful appellation.

A subsequent researcher, accepting Schmidt's supposition, has slightly modified his reading of "Mongol" to mean the "secure backbone" of Genghis Khan's power (i.e. his soldiers or people). Such a reading, which seems plausible, betrays nineteenth- and twentieth-century notions of how "states" are held together – i.e., as a "nation." The "Mongols" were everywhere far outnumbered by their subjects (one researcher estimated the thirteenth-century "Mongol" population at 700,000 – at a time when Mongol controlled China had at least 75 million people

Rather than a nation the Mongols were a ruling caste in the broader ulus. The Genghisid principle was the "unifier," not nationhood. Flowing out from the Genghisid principle was the military organization of society, or, to put it another way, the convertibility of civilian into military existence. That in its turn was founded on a way of life, nomadism.

The category of "Mongol" is further troubled by the evident assimilation of Mongol speakers. According to one scholar, Batu commanded 370,000 people, of who maybe one-third were "Mongols." Another scholar acknowledges, however, that the number of Mongols proper remains a mystery. Indeed, the Great Russian orientalist Vasilii Bartol'd emphasized that the majority of Mongol speakers probably returned to the traditional lands of Mongolia (for example, once Batu's European campaign was halted in the 1240th). In addition, Bartol'd concluded, "those Mongols who stayed behind in the conquered countries quickly lost their nationality," as the language of the "empire" underwent Turkification in the steppes and Central Asia. Logically, such assimilated Mongols might then merit the designation "Tatar," which would seem to signify Turkified Mongols as well as other long-ago turkified peoples the Genghisid-led troops incorporated. The Tatars proper were not Turks, however, but a tribe or a group of Tungusic tribes who lived in northeastern Mongolia and fought incessantly with the Mongols (Genghis Khan's father appears to have been ambushed and killed by a Tatar). The Mongols never called themselves Tatars. It was the Chinese, who used the name "Tatar" to refer to all their northern neighbors, and it seems that the European travelers to Mongol-ruled China, as well as Arabic and Persian visitors adopted and spread the generic Chinese designation. Note that the term Tatar was rooted in an opposition – the barbarians north of China; the non-sedentary, nomadic peoples. It was in this oppositional sense that the west Europeans and Russians adopted "Tatar." The term Tatar, no less than "Mongol" or "Turk," expresses political relations.

An imposition that expressed fear and condescension, "Tatar" as a name implied a sense of unity and cohesion within the Mongol realm. Juji's ulus was never a unified or integrated entity, however. Rather, it was made up of various semi-independent ulus led by Batu's brothers and other relatives. At no point did all the parts unequivocally recognize the superordinate authority of Saray, even if they sometimes stopped short of going to war. By the second half of the XIIIth century, internal wars became endemic. Tamerlane applied the coup de grace. Sometime thereafter, the ulus "fragmented," meaning that even nominal allegiance to a single khan ceased. This produced, in the east, various components independent of Saray (and the object of contention among Kirghiz and Uzbeks), and in the west, several so-called "khanates" (Kazan, Astrakhan, and Crimea), as well as other offshoots, among which was the Siberian "khanate." The "fragments" had always been fragments; what changed was the appearance, and to an extent the practice, of allegiance to a single authority.

Scholars have not been able to fix the "borders" of the Golden Horde, or have done so only very vaguely using geographical information supplied by Arabic sources in the XIVth and XVth centuries (there is also a Chinese map from the XIVth century). On European maps of Asia, various political entities are duly noted, but there is no effort to indicate the "borders" separating them. Nonetheless, one historical geographer has pressed forward, noting that the Mongols signed agreements with Riazan recognizing Episcopal spheres and the right to collect church duties (divided among the Saray and Riazan metropolitans), and that they seem to have maintained guards at some kind of "border" with the Rus principalities. At the same time, however, this scholar admits that many steppe peoples migrated, seeking to create "neutral zones" between themselves and the Mongols, a process the Mongols welcomed. All of this suggests that the effort to establish the Golden Horde's borders is anachronistic because they had no such concept. As Howorth wrote, "among nomadic races, territorial provinces are not so well recognized as tribal ones. A potentate distributes his clans, not his acres, among his children. Each of them has of course its camping ground, but the exact limits are not to be definitely measured."

Juji's ulus, notwithstanding its Islamicization, was less a state with borders than a perpetual standing army, an agglomeration of peoples for whom military and civilian life was not clearly distinguished. There were notions of extremities and of lands that were located beyond those that were conducive to pastoralism, but no fixed state boundaries. The ulus was "nonbounded." Its rule, although nominally exclusive, did not preclude multiple sovereignty (some peoples levied by the Horde could wind up paying tribute to others).

Kazakhstan lands in the structure of Golden Horde in the period of state formation (1242-1266)

The period of State formation in the history of the Golden Horde was in the reign of Batu and Berke. During of Batu's governing were distributed land holdings (ulus) in accordance with military posts, established of the state apparatus, aimed solely at collecting taxes and tribute, established a system of political power over nations that, geographically were not members of the Golden Horde. At first it belonged to Russia.

However, when all the power of the army and the magnificence of the Khan's Golden Horde of the court in political terms was not an independent state, and was part of a unified empire, run from the Karakorum. This dependence is expressed by:

• Mandatory expulsion and sending taxes and tributes.

• Khans of the Golden Horde could not claim the Grand Dukes of Vladimir on the table, and could appoint the lords of smaller ranks. New Khan on the throne of Golden Horde also was approved in the Karakorum.

• Do not have the right to put his name on the Golden Horde coins.

• Do not have the right to establish diplomatic relations with other states, as well as the reception of their representatives and maintaining correspondence with foreign sovereigns.

Batu Khan laid the foundation for the Golden state, based upon solely on the usual nomadic tradition establishing by the Yasa of Genghis Khan. In full accordance with the Karakorum line at the maximum extraction of income from the subject population, it begins to emerge and develop state fiscal officials. The period of Batu – the only peaceful period in the history of the Golden Horde, this will undoubtedly allow focusing its main efforts on the creation of internal political and economic structure.

There is more information about Batu-khan:

Batu (ca. 1206–1255) a Mongol prince, the second son of Juji' – Genghis Khan’s eldest son. Batu commanded the army that conquered the northeastern Rus’ principalities (1237–1238) and subsequently that conquered the southern Rus’ principalities and invaded Eastern Europe (1240–1241). Batu was the first khan to rule in the Khanate of Kipchak (Ulus of Juji; Desht-i-Kipchak), which he is credited with having founded. His father, Juji, to whom the lands had been granted “as far as Mongol hooves trod” in the western part of the Mongol Empire (i.e., west of the Irtysh River), died before ruling there. Batu is also credited with building the city of Saray (Old Saray, Saray- Batu) on the Akhtuba channel of the lower Volga River. Batu was present at the quriltai that chose Ugedei as qaghan in 1229 and most likely also at the quriltai of 1234, which planned the campaign against the Kipchaks, as well as the quriltai of 1237, which planned the campaign against the Rus’ principalities and Eastern Europe. Disagreements over Batu’s leadership developed during the campaigns in Rus’ and Eastern Europe (1237–1241).

Güyüg, a son of Ugedei, and Büri, a grandson of Chagatai, challenged Batu’s authority, possibly on the basis of the questionable legitimacy of Batu’s father. When Ugedei died in 1241, Batu opposed and apparently managed to delay the elevation of Güyüg to become Khan until 1246. Claiming ill health, Batu refused to attend any quriltais. His presence at the quriltai was needed to give legitimacy to Ugedei’s successor because, after Chagatai’s death in 1242, Batu was considered aqa – i.e., senior-ranking member of the Genghisids. When Güyüg was declared Khan by a quriltai despite Batu’s absence (although Batu was ostensibly represented by his five brothers), he mounted a campaign against Batu but died on the way to Batu’s ulus in 1248.

This time Batu succeeded in getting a quriltai of 1251 to select his own candidate, Möngke, who was the son of Tulyi (Genghis Khan’s youngest son). Batu had apparently reached agreement with Sorghaqtani, the widow of Tulyi, thus forming an alliance of Jujids and Tulyids against the Ugedeids. Möngke and Batu then launched a joint attack on the Ugedeids and their supporters, the Chagataids. As a result of Batu’s role in elevating Möngke to being Khan and in helping him to consolidate his hold on that position, Batu had a relatively free hand in ruling his own khanate.

The sky worshiper, Batu followed a policy of religious toleration, but seems not to have been pleased by the conversion of his brother Berke to Islam, for, according to William Rubruck, Batu changed Berke’s yurt to the eastern part of the Khanate beyond the Volga River to reduce his contacts with Muslims, which he thought harmful. The Mongol and Turkic sources refer to Batu as a saint, which means “good” or “wise”, and in the Rus’ sources before ca. 1448, Batu is depicted as “a powerful tsar” to whom the Rus’ princes had to pay obeisance. After 1448, the Russian sources increasingly depict Batu as a cruel plunderer and enslaver of the Rus’ land.

Death of Batu in 1256 led to the first in the Golden Horde battle for the possession of the throne. Governor of the state in 1257 became the younger brother of Batu – Berke. Winning Berke was largely facilitated by the support of his candidacy by Muslim merchants, attracted by the Golden administration as a tax-farmers tribute. At the same time, he found support for the Muslim clergy of KKhwarezm, who wanted to see on the throne not a pagan, but a supporter of the Muslim religion. New Khan took the throne at the age of about 50. Age of Berke was quite stormy and eventful, both in the inner life of the state and in the foreign policy arena.

• New Khan in his youth was converted to Islam and, therefore, immediately after accession to the throne declared Islam the state religion. This caused resistance nomadic aristocracy. Meanwhile, Khan began to pursue vigorously Islamization of the country. He invited from Iran to Egypt, priests, known theologians and scholars. At the same time from KKhwarezm were delivered new parties of artisans, builders and artists. Thanks to their labors the cities of the Golden Horde dramatically change their appearance.

• When Berke began the process of disintegration of the Mongol Empire. Berke's striving to transform ulus Juji as an independent state. It was reflected in coinage.When the Golden Horde was dependent on the native yurt, as it was when Batu, Golden coin minted with the name of the Great Khan Mengu. Berke also minted coins with the name of the great khan Arigbuga. But as soon as Kubilai Khan became the Great Khan, Berke refused to mint coins with the name of the Great Khan, which was tantamount to a denial of the supreme power of Kubilai. At the same time the independence of the ulus was not recognized by the rest of the Mongol princes, so Berke was minted the coins with the name of the last caliph Nasir al-din, emphasizing that he Berke recognized only the spiritual power of the caliphs.

• During the reign of Berke in 1263 began a war with their relatives – the Khulaguids who settled in Iran. Both branches of a single clan Genghisids not share a very rich and very attractive for nomadic province of Azerbaijan. In the heated struggle Golden Horde was supported by Mamluk Egypt, fearing the expansion of Khulaguids in the direction of their possessions. Throughout the conflict, none of the parties failed to achieve decisive advantage, even though the Golden Horde was able to capture the capital of Iran, Tabriz. Berke himself died in 1266 under Tbilisi during one of the campaigns against Khulaguids.

During Batu and Berke's reign Golden Horde not only fully took shape as a state with all attributes of power and social structure, but also entered into steady economic relations with Asian and European countries, as well as developed strategic directions for foreign policy interests. We can say that in the subsequent history of the state continued deepening and developing all aspects of its internal and foreign policy lay down by the founders.

There is more information about Berke-khan:

Berke, Khan of the Kipchak Khanate from 1257 to 1267. He was a grandson of Genghis Khan, third son of Juji, and younger brother of Batu. William Rubruck tells us that Berke converted to Islam but does not provide a date. This evidence conflicts with that of the Persian historian Juzjani, who says Berke was raised from infancy as a Muslim. It also conflicts with the evidence of Abu ’l-Ghazi, who says that Berke adopted Islam after he became khan. In this regard, William has been generally taken as the most reliable source of the three, for he also remarks that Berke’s yurt was originally in the southern part of the Khanate where Muslims from Turkey and Persia passed. Subsequently, after Berke converted to Islam, Batu changed Berke’s yurt to the eastern part of the Khanate beyond the Volga River to reduce his contacts with Muslims, which he thought harmful.

The date generally assigned for Berke’s accession to the khanship (1257) is based on two considerations:

(1) Berke succeeded Ulaghchi, the son of Batu; and (2) the last mention of Ulaghchi is in the Rus’Chronicles under 1257. Berke, thus, became the fourth khan of the Kipchak Khanate after Batu, Sartak, and Ulaghchi. Early in his reign, according to Juzjani, Berke traveled to Bukhara and honored the learned men there. He also ordered to punish Christians in Samarkand and the destruction of their churches for mistreating Muslims in the town. Although he was the first khan of the Kipchak Khanate to be a Muslim, he continued the Mongols’ pluralistic religious policy of tolerance toward all religions and did not make Islam the privileged religion of the Khanate.

Berke supported Arigh Boke in his struggle (1260–1264) with Kubilai Khan. When Prince Alaghu revolted against Arigh Boke, he took over Khwarezm and drove Berke’s officals away. W. Barthold argues that the destruction of a 5000-man division of Berke’s, described by Wassaf, was not the work of Kubilai’s forces nor those of Khulagu (as C. d’Ohsson suggests) but of Alaghu. Berke later supported Khaidu against Alaghu and by extension against Kubilai.

Berke seems to have had few direct dealings with the Rus’ lands except to promote religious tolerance, to send tax collectors there, and to commandeer Rus’ troops to send to his ally, the Mamluks in Egypt. When an uprising of townspeople against Berke’s tax collectors in Rus’had to be put down with Khanate troops, Alexander Nevskii went to Berke, either on his own initiative or because he was summoned, and pleaded for leniency for the perpetrators. It was on his way back from his meeting with Berke that Alexander Nevskii died in Gorodets in 1263.

From 1262 on, Berke fought the Ilkhanate of Khulagu until the latter’s death in 1265, and then continued fighting Khulagu’s successor, Abaqa, until Berke’s own death in January 1267. During the period 1264–1265, as a part of this Kipchak Khanate-Ilkhanate war, Berke formed an alliance with the Mamluk sultan in Egypt while Khulagu formed an alliance with the Byzantine Empire. This brief period represented one of the few occasions during the two-and-a-half centuries of the Kipchak Khanate’s existence that it was not on friendly terms with the Byzantine Empire.

Control questions:

1. What are the signs of the Golden Horde dependent status on the Mongol Empire during Batu and Berke reign?

2. Who supported Berke in his accession to the throne of the Golden Horde'?

3. What can you say about the Berke's attempts of of the Golden Horde's Islamization?

4. The Mongol Empire's state during the reign of Berke in the Golden Horde

5. What are the reasons of the war of Juji with their relatives – the Khulaguids who settled in Iran?

Kazakhstan lands in the structure of Golden Horde from the first political crisis in the Golden Horde (1266-1312) till disintegration period (1420-1480)

Powerful general during the reign of Berke and Möngke Temür. However he lacked the military talents of Batu or his great grandfather Jöchi. He led an unsuccessful raid on Hungary in 1261, and commanded two failed campaigns against Khulagu – in 1262 and 1267. In the latter debacle he not only lost an eye but witnessed the death of his sovereign. However he was successful against the Byzantine Empire in 1265, after it had invaded Bulgaria, forcing it into an alliance, the Emperor Michael Palaeologos offering the hand of one of his illegitimate daughters to Emir Nogay. In 1271 he invaded Bulgaria at the request of his father-in-law who was seeking revenge against the King of Bulgaria for a raid against Thrace. Like Berke, Nogay was a Muslim, having been converted at some time prior to 1262. Nogay had three legitimate sons: Cheke, Teke and Buri.

Nogay does not appear to have inherited his own ulus, and was always described as a commander, suggesting that he may not have been a legitimate son. Instead he seems to have carved out his own fiefdom in the western part of the Kipchak Khanate. Grousset refers to a Franciscan envoy to the Crimea named Ladislas, who noted that while the Khans of Kipchak (Töda-Möngke and Töle-Buqa, see below) occupied the region around Saray, Nogay roamed further west in the region of the Don and the Donets. From the 1260's onwards he controlled the westernmost region of the Khanate of Kipchak, effectively establishing an independent province on the western and northern shores of the Black Sea, ranging from the lower Danube to the lower Don and extending north to the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains (in other words a large part of present day Moldova and the Ukraine). His influence extended into the Balkans and northern Bulgaria. His main encampment was on the River Bug, which enters the Black Sea just west of the Crimea.