Читать книгу Internal Combustion Engines - Allan T. Kirkpatrick - Страница 4

1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Piston and connecting rod. (Courtesy Mahle, Inc.)Figure 1.2 Automobile engine. (Courtesy Mercedes‐Benz Photo Library.)Figure 1.3 Marine engine. (Courtesy Man B&W Diesel.)Figure 1.4 Four‐stroke spark‐ignition engine.Figure 1.5 A cross‐scavenged two‐stroke cycle.Figure 1.6 Engine slider crank geometry.Figure 1.7 Wide‐open throttle (WOT) performance of an automotive four‐stroke...Figure 1.8 Brake mean effective pressure at WOT versus mean piston speed for...Figure 1.9 Effect of engine speed and intake manifold geometry on volumetric...Figure 1.10 Performance map of bmep and bsfc versus mean piston speed for an...Figure 1.11 Cylinder volume vs. crank angle for (Equations 1.33 and 1.36)....Figure 1.12 Nondimensional velocity vs. crank angle for (Equation 1.38).Figure 1.13 Various piston‐cylinder geometries. (Adapted from Obert 1950.)Figure 1.14 Poppet valve assembly. (Adapted from Taylor 1985.)Figure 1.15 Poppet valve timing profile. (Courtesy of Competition Cams, Inc....Figure 1.16 Turbocharger schematic. (Courtesy of Schwitzer.)Figure 1.17 Liquid cooling system schematic.Figure 1.18 Air cooling of model airplane engine. (Courtesy R. Schroeder.)Figure 1.19 3.2 L V‐6 automobile engine. (Courtesy of Honda Motor Co.)Figure 1.20 Cutaway view of 3.2 L V‐6 automobile engine. (Courtesy of Honda ...Figure 1.21 A variable valve timing mechanism. (Courtesy of Honda Motor Co.)...Figure 1.22 A 5.9 L L6 on‐highway diesel engine. (Courtesy of PriceWebber.)...Figure 1.23 A 94 L L8 stationary natural gas engine. (Courtesy of Cooper Ene...Figure 1.24 Cutaway view of 94 L L8 stationary natural gas engine. (Courtesy...Figure 1.25 Hybrid electric vehicle powertrain configurations.

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 The Otto cycle (, ).Figure 2.2 Otto cycle thermal efficiency and imep as a function of compressi...Figure 2.3 The Diesel cycle (, ).Figure 2.4 Diesel cycle characteristics as a function of compression ratio a...Figure 2.5 The limited pressure cycle (, ).Figure 2.6 Comparison of limited pressure cycle with Otto and Diesel cycles ...Figure 2.7 The Miller cycle.Figure 2.8 Ratio of Miller to Otto cycle thermal efficiency with same compre...Figure 2.9 Ratio of Miller to Otto cycle imep with same compression ratio, Figure 2.10 Four‐stroke inlet and exhaust flow. inlet pressure, exhaust ...Figure 2.11 The exhaust stroke (4 to 5 to 6) illustrating residual mass.Figure 2.15 Cumulative mass fraction burned function.Figure 2.18 Dual Wiebe function for diesel energy release. (Adapted from Miy...Figure 2.21 Thermal efficiency vs. start of energy release for Examples 2.5 ...Figure 2.22 Imep vs. start of energy release for Examples 2.5 and 2.6.Figure 2.23 Cumulative work and heat/mass loss for Example 2.6.

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Enthalpy versus temperature curve‐fits for CO₂ and H₂O.Figure 3.2 Equilibrium composition of octane (); air mixtures for different...Figure 3.3 Equilibrium composition of octane (C₈H₁₈); air mixtures as a func...Figure 3.4 Specific heat of equilibrium combustion products versus tempera...Figure 3.5 Specific heat of equilibrium combustion products versus equival...Figure 3.6 Specific heat ratio of equilibrium combustion products versus e...Figure 3.7 Gas constant of equilibrium combustion products versus equivale...Figure 3.8 Enthalpy of combustion products for a gasoline–air mixture versus...Figure 3.9 Enthalpy of combustion products of a methanol–air mixture versus

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Adiabatic flame temperature of some fuels initially at atmospheri...Figure 4.2 A control volume for analyzing the maximum work of a cyclic engin...Figure 4.3 Comparison of the available energy and the equilibrium heat of ...Figure 4.4 Effect of equivalence ratio on Otto fuel–air cycle.Figure 4.5 Effect of compression ratio on Otto fuel–air cycle.Figure 4.6 Effect of residual fraction on Otto fuel–air cycle.Figure 4.7 Effect of intake/exhaust pressure ratio on four‐stroke Otto fuel–...Figure 4.8 Effect of intake/exhaust pressure ratio on four‐stroke Otto fuel–...Figure 4.9 Effect of equivalence ratio on limited pressure fuel–air cycle.Figure 4.10 Effect of compression ratio on limited pressure fuel–air cycle....Figure 4.11 Energy release fraction versus crank angle (Example 4.8).Figure 4.12 Pressure versus crank angle (Example 4.8).Figure 4.13 Unburned and burned zone temperature versus crank angle (Example...Figure 4.14 Work and heat loss (J) versus crank angle (Example 4.8).Figure 4.15 Compression ignition energy release profile (Example 4.9).Figure 4.16 Compression ignition temperature versus crank angle (Example 4.9...Figure 4.17 Compression ignition pressure versus crank angle (Example 4.9)....Figure 4.18 Compression ignition cumulative work and heat loss versus crank ...Figure 4.19 Comparison of an actual spark ignition cycle with its equivalent...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Schematic of valve flow areas.Figure 5.2 Schematic of valve flow blockage.Figure 5.3 Comparison of effective () and geometric () valve cross‐section...Figure 5.4 Schematic of a steady flow bench.Figure 5.5 Effect of Reynolds number (Re = ) and nondimensional valve lift Figure 5.6 Flow patterns through an inlet valve. (Adapted from Annand and Ro...Figure 5.7 Valve discharge coefficient versus lift (Example 5.2).Figure 5.8 Valve flow coefficient versus lift (Example 5.2).Figure 5.9 Effect of valve lift on exhaust valve discharge coefficient. (Ada...Figure 5.10 Flow patterns through an exhaust valve. (Adapted from Annand and...Figure 5.11 Volumetric efficiency versus inlet valve Mach index in the regim...Figure 5.12 Valve diameter ratios for a flat cylinder head (b: bore, In: int...Figure 5.13 Representative exhaust and intake valve profiles.Figure 5.14 Conventional exhaust and intake valve profiles (Example 5.4).Figure 5.15 Cylinder pressure versus crank angle (Example 5.4).Figure 5.16 Inlet mass flow versus crank angle (Example 5.4).Figure 5.17 Exhaust mass flow versus crank angle (Example 5.4).Figure 5.18 Effect of valve timing on volumetric efficiency (Example 5.5).Figure 5.19 Inlet mass flow versus crank angle for conventional timing (Exam...Figure 5.20 Inlet mass flow versus crank angle for high performance timing (...Figure 5.21 Automotive engine intake manifold. (Courtesy Brodix, Inc.)Figure 5.22 Intake manifold pressure and frequency at low speed ( rpm). (Ad...Figure 5.23 Intake manifold pressure and frequency at high speed ( rpm). (A...Figure 5.24 Volumetric efficiency versus engine speed and intake runner leng...Figure 5.25 CFD grid for intake manifold flow. (Courtesy Adapco.)Figure 5.26 CFD velocity results for intake manifold flow. (Courtesy Adapco....Figure 5.27 CFD grid for exhaust manifold flow. (Courtesy Adapco.)Figure 5.28 CFD results for exhaust manifold flow. (Courtesy Adapco.)Figure 5.29 Two‐stroke scavenging configurations. (Adapted from Taylor 1985....Figure 5.30 Flow bench measurement of effective flow areas and discharge coe...Figure 5.31 Port discharge coefficient. (a) Variation with port opening at l...Figure 5.32 Crankcase and inlet pressure profiles for a two‐stroke motorcycl...Figure 5.33 Cylinder and exhaust pressure profiles for a two‐stroke motorcyc...Figure 5.34 Two‐stroke scavenging and trapping efficiencies.Figure 5.35 Two‐stroke scavenging efficiency versus engine speed. (Adapted f...Figure 5.36 Supercharger and turbocharger configurations.Figure 5.37 Comparison of turbine and compressor work.Figure 5.38 Types of positive displacement compressors.Figure 5.39 Turbocharger cutaway. (Courtesy PriceWeber.)Figure 5.40 Turbocharger cross‐section. (Adapted from Laustela et al. 1995.)...Figure 5.41 Centrifugal compressor cross‐section.Figure 5.42 Compressor enthalpy‐entropy diagram.Figure 5.43 Representative Roots supercharger performance. (Adapted from Sor...Figure 5.44 Centrifugal compressor map. The parameter is the Mach number b...Figure 5.45 Centrifugal compressor map. (Adapted from Anderson et al. 1984.)...Figure 5.46 Compressor impeller inlet and exit velocity triangles.Figure 5.47 Radial flow turbine cross‐section.Figure 5.48 Turbine enthalpy‐entropy diagram.Figure 5.49 Turbine rotor inlet and exit velocity triangles.Figure 5.50 Example plot of turbine efficiency versus blade speed ratio.

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Schematic of gasoline direct fuel injection. (Adapted from Takagi...Figure 6.2 Schematic of port fuel injection.Figure 6.3 Mass of fuel injected as a function of injector pulse width and p...Figure 6.4 Diesel fuel injector pressure and lift profiles. (Adapted from Es...Figure 6.5 Common rail fuel injector‐mechanical control.Figure 6.6 Common rail fuel injector‐electrical control.Figure 6.7 Jerk‐pump fuel injection system.Figure 6.8 Jerk‐pump operation.Figure 6.9 Diesel electronic unit injector. (Adapted from Merrion 1994.)Figure 6.10 Droplet vaporization (Example 6.3).Figure 6.11 Simple model of a gas jet.Figure 6.12 Prechamber for use in large‐ bore natural gas engine.Figure 6.13 Prechamber schematic.Figure 6.14 Carburetor for mixing liquid fuels with air.Figure 6.15 Carburetor for mixing gaseous fuels with air. (Courtesy Impco, I...Figure 6.16 The fuel–air ratio as a function of carburetor demand.Figure 6.17 Schematic of intake port showing swirl parameters and . (Adap...Figure 6.18 Steady‐state flow and swirl system. (Adapted from Uzhan et al. 1...Figure 6.19 Effect of inlet port orientation angle and valve lift on swi...Figure 6.20 Schematic of bowl in piston crown for production of swirl and sq...Figure 6.21 Instantaneous swirl ratio as a function of piston geometry.Figure 6.22 Swirl ratio and squish versus crank angle. (Adapted from Belaire...Figure 6.23 Squish velocity and turbulent velocity as a function of piston g...Figure 6.24 Laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV) steady‐ flow test rig.Figure 6.25 CFD grid for in‐cylinder flow of a four‐ valve cylinder. (Courte...Figure 6.26 Close‐up of CFD grid. (Courtesy Adapco.)Figure 6.27 CFD flow field. (Courtesy Adapco.)

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Laser shadowgraph of lean = 0.55 (left) and rich = 1.1 (right...Figure 7.2 Pressure profiles for Figure 7.1. (Adapted from Witze and Vilchis...Figure 7.3 Representative mass fraction burned curves. For varying equival...Figure 7.4 Ignition delay versus equivalence ratio and residual fraction. (A...Figure 7.5 Combustion duration versus equivalence ratio and residual fractio...Figure 7.6 Effect of combustion chamber geometry on combustion duration and ...Figure 7.7 Temperature and species concentration profiles during flame propa...Figure 7.8 Dependence of laminar flame speed on equivalence ratio ( K, Figure 7.9 Dependence of laminar flame speed on unburned gas temperature Figure 7.10 Ink roller model of turbulent combustion.Figure 7.11 Pressure profiles for knocking conditions. (Adapted from Douaud ...Figure 7.12 Schlieren photographs of knock process. (Adapted from Smith et a...Figure 7.13 Temperature history of the end gas in Figure 7.12 as determined ...Figure 7.14 High‐speed photographic sequence of the luminosity of a diesel f...Figure 7.15 Simple model of diesel combustion.Figure 7.16 Detailed model of diesel combustion. (Adapted from Dec 1997.)Figure 7.17 Energy release profiles for short‐ and long‐duration fuel inject...Figure 7.18 The effective fuel injection rate versus crank angle. (Adapted f...Figure 7.19 Evolution of a fuel parcel from liquid fuel to combustion produc...Figure 7.20 Spray parcel entrainment and mixing.Figure 7.21 Instantaneous fractions of injected, vaporized, and burned fuel ...Figure 7.22 Predicted energy release versus crank angle for two different ch...Figure 7.23 Representative PPCI dual injection strategy.Figure 7.24 Representative RCCI dual fuel operation.Figure 7.25 Temperature and concentration profiles for K (iso‐octane).Figure 7.26 Temperature and concentration profiles for K (iso‐octane).Figure 7.27 Ignition delay as a function of initial temperature and octane...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Mass fraction burned versus crank angle (Example 8.1).Figure 8.2 Pressure versus crank angle (Example 8.1).Figure 8.3 Calculated temperature of burned gas and unburned gas (Exampl...Figure 8.4 Predicted equilibrium and rate limited NO concentrations (Example...Figure 8.5 Predicted equilibrium and rate limited NO concentrations (Example...Figure 8.6 Calculated exhaust NO concentration versus equivalence ratio and ...Figure 8.7 NO concentration versus cylinder wall temperature (Example 8.1)....Figure 8.8 NO concentration versus start of heat release (Example 8.1).Figure 8.9 NO concentration versus engine speed (Example 8.1).Figure 8.10 NO concentration versus IMEP (Example 8.1).Figure 8.11 Advanced timing increases NO. (Adapted from Huls and Nickol 1967...Figure 8.12 Ensemble of fluid elements during compression and combustion.Figure 8.13 Exhaust gas composition versus fuel–air ratio for supercharged e...Figure 8.14 CO concentration in two elements of the charge the burned at dif...Figure 8.15 Wall vortex formed by exhaust stroke. (Adapted from Tabaczynski ...Figure 8.16 Variation of HC concentration at the exhaust valve during the ex...Figure 8.17 HC concentrations as a function of load for direct injection and...Figure 8.18 Two‐ and three‐ring polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) struct...Figure 8.19 Soot formation and oxidation versus temperature (Example 8.2).Figure 8.20 Soot and formation on a diagram.Figure 8.21 Representative plot of soot and tradeoff versus injection timi...Figure 8.22 Representative plot of soot and tradeoff versus EGR.Figure 8.23 Engine emission control methods. (Courtesy Englehard Corporation...Figure 8.24 Catalytic converter. (Courtesy Englehard Corporation.)Figure 8.25 Catalytic converter components. (Courtesy Englehard Corporation....Figure 8.26 Conversion efficiencies for oxidizing catalysts. (Adapted from M...Figure 8.27 Conversion efficiencies for three‐way catalyst versus air–fuel r...Figure 8.28 Illustration for Homework Problem 8.3.Figure 8.29 Illustration for Homework Problem 8.14.

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Distillation process.Figure 9.2 (a) Paraffins, (b) Olefins, and (c) Naphthenes.Figure 9.3 Aromatics.Figure 9.4 (a) Alcohols, (b) Ethers, and (c) Nitroparaffins.Figure 9.5 Specific heat of various hydrocarbons.Figure 9.6 Specific heat of various hydrocarbons.Figure 9.7 Effect of fuel–air ratio on knock‐limited imep for three aircraft...Figure 9.8 Effect of fuel structure on the detonation tendency of paraffinic...Figure 9.9 Cetane and octane number correlation for hydrocarbon fuels. (Adap...

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Stribeck diagram showing friction regimes.Figure 10.2 Schematic of lubricant film thickness vs. Stribeck duty paramete...Figure 10.3 Metal‐to‐metal contact in boundary lubrication. Adapted from Ros...Figure 10.4 Dynamic viscosity versus temperature for various oil SAE grades....Figure 10.5 Diesel engine fmep versus piston speed. (Adapted from Brown 1973...Figure 10.6 Motored friction mean effective pressure (fmep) during disassemb...Figure 10.7 Gasoline engine friction versus load. (Adapted from Gish 1957.)...Figure 10.8 Piston and connecting rod. (Courtesy Mahle, Inc.)Figure 10.9 Piston head for a spark‐ignition engine. (Courtesy Mahle, Inc.)...Figure 10.10 Piston ring assembly schematic. (Adapted from Merrion 1994.)Figure 10.11 Common types of piston rings.Figure 10.12 Piston and ring friction, = 4.57 m/s, bmep = 5.78 bar, = ...Figure 10.13 Friction of piston skirt, rings, and gas pressure.Figure 10.14 Essential features of a hydrodynamic analysis of ring friction....Figure 10.15 Taper compression ring geometry.Figure 10.16 Barrel compression ring geometry.Figure 10.17 Oil film pressure and thickness for a taper compression ring (E...Figure 10.18 Oil film pressure and thickness for a barrel compression ring (...Figure 10.19 Effect of load on minimum oil film thickness. (Adapted from All...Figure 10.20 Piston force balance.Figure 10.21 Piston side thrust load and the switch of contact sides. (Adapt...Figure 10.22 Engine crankshaft. (Courtesy Norton Manufacturing.)Figure 10.23 Journal bearing geometry.Figure 10.24 Journal bearing pressure and film thickness profiles (Example 1...Figure 10.25 Various valve train designs. (Adapted from Rosenberg 1982.)Figure 10.26 Representative V8 engine camshaft. (Courtesy COMP Cams.)Figure 10.27 Type V push rod rocker arm with roller follower. (Courtesy Jese...Figure 10.28 Rocker arms on cylinder head. (Courtesy Jesel Valvetrain Compon...Figure 10.29 Engine poppet valves. (Courtesy Wesco Valve.)Figure 10.30 Engine oil pump. (Courtesy Melling Engine Parts).Figure 10.31 Engine water pump. (Courtesy Airtex Products).Figure 10.32 Friction mean effective pressure versus engine speed.Figure 10.33 Relative contributions of fmep components versus engine speed....

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Liquid‐cooling system schematic.Figure 11.2 Air‐cooling system schematic.Figure 11.3 Engine instrumented for energy balance measurements.Figure 11.4 Energy balance on an spark‐ignition engine. (Courtesy D. Brigham...Figure 11.5 Surface thermocouple plug used to measure instantaneous heat flu...Figure 11.6 Piston cooling paths.Figure 11.7 Cylinder head heat flux profiles of five consecutive combustion ...Figure 11.8 Three resistor thermal network.Figure 11.9 Thermal network with capacitance node for penetration layer.Figure 11.10 Piston temperature distribution versus engine speed at WOT. (Ad...Figure 11.11 Instantaneous heat transfer coefficient (Example 11.2).Figure 11.12 Heat flux (Example 11.2).Figure 11.13 Cumulative dimensionless heat loss (Example 11.2). Figure 11.14 Ring pack and 1‐D flow model of blowby.Figure 11.15 Measured inter‐ring pressure. (Adapted from Ruddy 1979.)Figure 11.16 Measured gas composition at the top land of a gasoline engine a...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Engine on hydraulic dynamometer test stand. (Courtesy Land & Sea...Figure 12.2 Torque measurement using a cradle mounted dynamometer.Figure 12.3 Fuel flow measurement using a weighing bridge. (Adapted from Lyn...Figure 12.4 Coriolis effect flowmeter: (a) Sensor tube vibration; (b) Forces...Figure 12.5 Single‐cylinder engine equipped with inlet surge tank and steady...Figure 12.6 Various airflow meters and associated pressure/temperature measu...Figure 12.7 Fuel injector control voltage. (a) Part load. (b) Full load.Figure 12.8 Quartz piezoelectric pressure transducers. (a) Courtesy Kistler ...Figure 12.9 Schematic of pressure measurement system.Figure 12.10 Representative cylinder pressure versus crank angle.Figure 12.11 Cylinder pressure cycle.Figure 12.12 Log cylinder pressure cycle.Figure 12.13 Instantaneous energy release versus crank angle.Figure 12.14 Cumulative burn fraction versus crank angle.Figure 12.15 Cylinder average temperature versus crank angle. (ic: intake va...Figure 12.16 CO and infrared transmittance spectra.Figure 12.17 Schematic of infrared analyzer operation.Figure 12.18 Schematic of a flame ionization detector (FID).Figure 12.19 Model representation of the reactor in a chemiluminescence nitr...Figure 12.20 Exhaust gas dilution tunnel.Figure 12.21 Oxygen sensor voltage vs. equivalence ratio.Figure 12.22 Typical sampling valve. (Courtesy Tsukasa Sokkler, Ltd.)Figure 12.23 (a) Federal Test Procedure LA4 driving schedule. (b) US06 drivi...

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Brake‐specific fuel consumption of two‐ and four‐stroke engines ...Figure 13.2 Performance of a V‐8 spark‐ignition engine at three different co...Figure 13.3 Brake‐specific fuel consumption of a single cylinder research en...Figure 13.4 The effect of air–fuel ratio on the bsfc and exhaust emissions o...Figure 13.5 Comparison of an SI engine with an IDI‐CI engine design to produ...Figure 13.6 Comparison of the brake‐specific fuel consumption of a marine di...Figure 13.7 Representative spark‐ignition engine performance map (automotive...Figure 13.8 Representative spark‐ignition engine performance map (automotive...Figure 13.9 Performance map of bmep and bsfc versus engine speed for a repre...Figure 13.10 Performance map of a four‐cylinder naturally aspirated indirect...Figure 13.11 Effect of spark timing on bmep for a number of different chassi...Figure 13.12 Minimum spark advance for best torque. (Adapted from Young 1980...Figure 13.13 Brake‐specific nitric oxide emissions versus brake‐specific fue...Figure 13.14 Thermal efficiency of a spark‐ignition engine as function of th...