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CHAPTER two

Natural History

Geology

BIG SUR’S RUGGED LANDSCAPE speaks to a tumultuous past, when ocean and rock collided in a dramatic convergence. It is a geologically youthful region. In just 5 million years, Big Sur has been smashed between colliding tectonic plates, compressed by massive faults, and rammed upward to form the jagged peaks, steep ridges, and deep gorges of the Santa Lucia Range.

While the mountains themselves may be relative toddlers, many of the rocks bear ancient origins, tens of millions of years old. The convoluted topography means that rock types formed under radically different conditions lie confusingly side by side. Ancient mountain ranges, seafloors, stream sediments, and molten rock form a jumbled matrix that continues to baffle geologists.

The story for most of these rocks begins 130 million years ago, amid sediments from an ancient mountain range 1800 miles southeast in present-day Mexico. In that era, North America’s western shoreline lay about where the Sierra Nevada stands today, everything west was submerged beneath the ocean, and the Santa Lucia Range did not exist. In the following millennia, westbound rivers deposited the sediments along the coast, where these layers eventually solidified into sandstone, siltstone, and limestone.

Over subsequent millions of years, a massive oceanic plate slid slowly beneath the continental plate. The increasing depth and pressure melted the sandstone, siltstone, and limestone, which slowly cooled and solidified underground as various types of granite, marble, schist, and gneiss. The cooling process formed large crystals that lend these rocks a salt-and-pepper appearance in the sunlight. Geologists believe that rock types along the Big Sur coast and Santa Lucia Range share traits with granites of the Sierra Nevada, comprising a group called the Salinian block.

The hard, crystalline rocks of the Salinian block comprise many of the prominent high peaks of the range, such as Ventana Double Cone and Pico Blanco, as well as many of the rugged coves, cliffs, and promontories along the Big Sur coastline, particularly at Garrapata, Julia Pfeiffer, and Partington Cove. These durable, erosion-resistant granitic rocks hold up well in the pounding surf, producing little sediment to cloud the waters. Any sediment is coarse-grained and quickly sinks to the bottom, unlike finer sediments that cloud coastal waters elsewhere in California.

These rocks are readily identified when exposed. Limestone and marble outcrops are vivid white with a sugary texture. Granitic rocks in the surf zone appear coarse with reflective faces, while rocks higher on the bluffs weather a rusty orange. Collectively, the Salinian block rocks form the basement layers in the north half of the Santa Lucia Range.

Sandstone cliffs tower above the open grasslands and pine-studded meadows of Ventana Wilderness.

As the denser oceanic plate dove under the lighter continental plate, massive accumulations of sand, mud, and the skeletons of microscopic sea creatures scraped off and slipped into a deep undersea trench. The resulting jumble appears along the Big Sur coast in the Franciscan formation, part of the Nacimiento block, which forms the underlying rock in the south half of the Santa Lucia Range.

The exposed cliffs at Andrew Molera State Park include excellent examples of Franciscan rocks. Formed from silica-rich sea creature skeletons, chert features jagged layering and an erosion-resistant glasslike texture. Sandstone is characterized by its tan color, rough surfaces, and fine sand grains. Comprising hardened, compressed mud, shale is gray-black in color with microscopic grains.

Serpentine, California’s state rock, forms in layers that solidify above molten rock. These layers are scraped off and jumbled near the surface, where they react with groundwater to form this slippery green stone. You’ll find dramatic serpentine outcrops in the Silver Peak Wilderness amid the Salmon Creek and San Carpoforo drainages.

Other younger rocks formed in the vicinity of the Santa Lucia Range before a single peak rose above the surface. A few million years ago, this area was a drainage basin that collected sediments in the form of sand, silt, and boulders. In time these solidified into sandstone, siltstone, and conglomerate. Conglomerate is least common, although at Point Lobos it is the dominant sedimentary rock and forms dramatic outcrops and cobblestone promontories.

While these theories may explain how the rocks formed, they don’t explain how the rocks traveled hundreds of miles and rose to form the Santa Lucia Range. That story begins along the San Andreas Fault system some 30 million years ago. Once again, tectonic forces brought oceanic and continental plates together. This time, the North American plate and the Pacific plate met and began to grind past one another, marking the San Andreas Fault boundary.

Two massive chunks of Earth’s crust, the Nacimiento and Salinian blocks, were ripped from their moorings along the North American plate and pushed northward along the numerous major faults associated with the San Andreas system. These faults generally run northwest-southeast, paralleling the coastline and general trend of the coastal mountains. A prime example is the Sur-Nacimiento Fault, which separates the Salinian and Nacimiento blocks, relieving pressure along the San Andreas Fault. As the tectonic plates collided, compressed, and fractured along these major fault lines, the land buckled in on itself like folds in a loose carpet, giving rise to the peaks, ridges, and gorges of the Santa Lucia Range.

Stream courses mark many of these otherwise indiscernible faults. The lower Big Sur River from the gorge to Andrew Molera State Park offers startling proof of how fault movement can alter a watercourse. Along this section, the river flows straight down the Sur Thrust Fault until it is forced into a conspicuous 90-degree turn out to Molera Beach.

Coastal bluffs, or marine terraces, offer evidence that the Santa Lucia Range continues its abrupt rise above sea level. These bluffs form as waves carve into the bedrock and deposit coarse sand and sediments. As land west of the San Andreas Fault buckles, these platforms rise above sea level, exposing the layered sand and cobblestones. Prominent marine terraces stretch from Point Sur to Andrew Molera State Park, while broader terraces form the flat terrain at Pacific Valley.

Erosion serves as a counteracting force to the recent uplifted Santa Lucia Range. As mountain flanks rise ever steeper, streams cut deep, fast channels through the rock, carrying away thousands of tons of sediment. A clear creek in summer can become a muddy torrent during heavy winter rains or after wildfires remove anchoring vegetation. Landslides are a common phenomenon in Big Sur. Of course, the Pacific Ocean also accounts for its fair share of erosion.

Geologists believe the recent uplift has thus far outstripped these erosive forces. If the uplift slows or stops, however, the tables will turn and gradually return the region to a rumpled landscape of low, rolling hills and plains.

Climate

CLIMATOLOGISTS HAVE LONG COMPARED California’s climate to that of the Mediterranean coastline, with dry summers, wet winters, and moderate year-round temperatures. Big Sur’s climate differs markedly, however, due primarily to consistent summer fog and the sheer topography of the Santa Lucia Range. Temperatures and humidity run the extremes along the fog-shrouded coast, atop 5000-foot mountain peaks, amid deep river canyons, and across the sun-drenched south-facing slopes.

An air circulation pattern known as the North Pacific High dominates regional weather patterns. From May through September, the sun most directly strikes the Northern Hemisphere. Surface air warms and rises into the upper atmosphere toward the North Pole. This heated air mass cools quickly in the upper atmosphere, subsequently sinking toward the surface as a large high-pressure cell. This massive high-pressure cell drives Big Sur’s westerly winds and summer drought, as well as its summer fog, a very stable phenomenon off the California coast that is absent in the Mediterranean basin.

Thick fog forms when westerly winds brought by the North Pacific High push cold ocean water inland, forcing warmer surface water offshore. Rich in nutrients from nearshore submarine canyons, the cold water wells to the surface, sustaining abundant marine life along the Big Sur coast. With temperatures in the low 50s Fahrenheit, it also makes a swim here brisk at best, even in summer. The cold water chills the air directly above it. When this cold water comes in contact with warm, moist air along the coast, water vapor condenses into fog.

In the wake of winter rains, fog retreats and grasslands and forests burst with new growth.

This pattern continues until late fall, when the sun strikes Earth farther south and the North Pacific High dissipates. No longer deflected by the high-pressure cell, the jet stream flows over California and brings with it strong winter storms. From November through April, California’s wet season, these storms batter the coastal ranges until the sun’s path again swings north to rebuild the North Pacific High.

Plant & Animal Communities

BIG SUR IS HOME TO A DIVERSE ARRAY of plant communities and associated wildlife. Botanists have long been fascinated by the proximity of northern and southern species living beside one another along the region’s steep-sided ridges, narrow valleys, deep canyons, sun-drenched grasslands, and chaparral. Here, moisture-dependent redwoods may tower alongside drought-tolerant yuccas.

The story begins 5 million years ago, when the Santa Lucia Range was more of a low, rolling plain blessed with a moderate climate. Winters were warmer and summers wetter than today’s more Mediterranean climate. The climate was likely too damp for chaparral species and too warm for redwoods and their shade-loving companions. Given the relatively uniform landscape and climate, botanists suggest the area supported fewer species than today’s diverse topography permits.

Squeezed by tectonic plates and compressed by massive faults, the region rose and folded in on itself, creating the Santa Lucias’ jagged peaks, steep ridges, and deep gorges. This topographic shift occurred in concert with climatic changes from the most recent Ice Age some 2.5 million years ago. These profound changes disrupted the uniform vegetation, paving the way for a major plant invasion.

The cool, damp climate allowed redwoods to take root in narrow, deep canyons along the coast. Fog encroached inland in dry months, supplying much-needed moisture to northern species. Thunderstorms became commonplace, as moist air rose abruptly to form thick cumulonimbus clouds, or thunderheads. These clouds arrived in summer, when temperatures were at a maximum and moisture at a minimum. Lightning sparked regular wildfires, and fire-adapted plant species thrived.

Drought-tolerant species also had an advantage. As the range continued to rise, coastal lands received the lion’s share of precipitation, depriving eastern slopes of moisture. The steep topography also meant accelerated erosion, preventing mature soils from developing. The resulting shallow, primitive soils held considerably less ground water. But the hardy vegetation that populated these slopes shrugged at the arid conditions.

Low tide reveals diverse inter-tidal life.

Today, drought-tolerant plants still thrive on arid slopes, moisture-loving species grow along creeks and rivers, and shade-seeking plants retreat to the deep canyons and ravines. To categorize these patterns, botanists devised the concept of plant communities. A plant community is a group of species that grow together in a particular environment. Although it’s possible to break these down into more detailed divisions, following is a basic breakdown of Big Sur’s primary plant communities and their resident animals:

Coastal Scrub

Coastal scrub communities extend along the entire California coast and are divided into two major types: northern coastal scrub and southern coastal scrub. Although Point Sur is considered the loose boundary between the two types, northern and southern species intermingle along the Big Sur coast.

Common coastal shrubs include coyote brush (Baccharis pilularis), California lilac (Ceanothus thyrsiflorus), California coffeeberry (Rhamnus californica), and poison oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum). Headlands and bluffs feature such fragrant shrubs and herbs as California sagebrush (Artemisia californica), black sage (Salvia mellifera), hedge nettle (Stachys bullata), California mugwort (Artemisia douglasiana), and yerba buena (Satureia douglasii). Spring welcomes colorful purple, orange, and yellow blossoms from species such as silver and yellow bush lupine (Lupinus albifrons and arboreus), sticky monkeyflower (Mimulus aurantiacus), seaside daisy (Erigeron glaucus), and seaside wooly sunflower (Eriophyllum staechadifolium). Trees in this community are shrub-like, and few exceed 10 feet in height. California bay (Umbellularia californica) and coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia) nestle in ravines, while dense clusters of willows (mostly Salix coulteri) huddle near water.

The coastal bluffs and low rolling hillsides endure the constant assault of wind and salt spray, which sculpt and prune the plants to grow low and rounded. These species favor areas of heavy fog, average precipitation, abundant sunlight, and mild year-round temperatures. In Big Sur, northern plants thrive in moist locations, while southern species are more abundant in arid locations. When fire burns mature stands of coastal scrub, lush herbs and nutritious new growth thrive, providing prime foraging and nesting habitat to a greater number of animals.

Seeds, berries, roots, flowers, and young seedlings provide excellent food sources for herbivores, while woody plants provide nesting material. Omnivores and predators use the abundant scrub as cover from which to hunt, while prey species such as rodents, snakes, and small birds use it to hide from the former. Resident species include:

MAMMALS Mule deer, coyote, bobcat, gray fox, brush rabbit, black-tailed hare, California ground squirrel, Botta’s pocket gopher, California meadow mouse, brush mouse, pinyon mouse, Merriam’s chipmunk, long-tailed weasel, striped skunk, and dusky-footed woodrat.

BIRDS California condor, red-tailed hawk, white-tailed kite, California quail, western scrub jay, wrentit, California thrasher, song sparrow, white-crowned sparrow, bushtits, rufous-sided and California towhees, Anna’s hummingbird, and western meadowlark.

REPTILES Western fence lizard, alligator lizard, western skink, gopher snake, California mountain king snake, western terrestrial garter snake, and western rattlesnake.

New growth of this native pine appears purple as new cones form the next generation of Monterey pines.

Chaparral

Comprising dense thickets of hardwood shrubs with stiff evergreen leaves, chaparral is unquestionably the dominant plant community in Big Sur, particularly in the Ventana and Silver Peak Wildernesses.

The predominant species of this fire-loving vegetation type is chamise, or greasewood (Adenostoma fasciculatum). This member of the rose family features a tough, woody stem, wiry branches, and bundles of needlelike evergreen leaves. It is named for its oily wood, which emits a pungent odor when brushed against. This brush species is a favorite perch for ticks, which wait to hitchhike on unsuspecting passersby.

The majority of chaparral in the Santa Lucias can be divided into two types: chamise chaparral and mixed chaparral. Chamise can grow in pure stands, while other plants grow in association with chamise to form mixed chaparral, where species such as ceanothus and manzanita dominate. The community includes manzanita species (Arctostaphylos spp.), buck brush (Ceanothus cuneatus), wartleaf (Ceanothus papillosus), California coffeeberry (Rhamnus californica), monkeyflower (Mimulus bifidus), California yerba santa (Eriodictyon californicum), poison oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum), and Our Lord’s candle (Yucca whipplei).

Chaparral carpets the hottest, driest slopes, where summer temperatures can soar above 100°F. When lightning strikes, fire spreads quickly through mature chaparral stands. The volatile oils in some chaparral shrubs make this one of the most fire-adapted plant communities in the world. Historically, in the Santa Lucia Range, fire ravages chaparral slopes once every 10 to 40 years. The community provides critical stabilizing cover on steep, rocky slopes. When fire rips through, the slopes are left barren and unstable, resulting in massive floods and landslides when heavy winter storms strike.

Resident animal species include:

MAMMALS Mountain lion, coyote, gray fox, bobcat, mule deer, spotted skunk, ringtail, brush rabbit, California ground squirrel, Santa Cruz kangaroo rat, desert woodrat, California mice, deer mice, brush mice, Merriam’s chipmunk, pallid bat, and Brazilian free-tailed bat.

BIRDS Turkey vulture, golden eagle, red-tailed hawk, Cooper’s hawk, sharp-shinned hawk, California quail, mountain quail, Anna’s hummingbird, wrentit, California thrasher, rufous-sided and California towhee, blue-gray gnatcatcher, Bewick’s wren, bushtit, black swifts, white-throated swifts, and barn, violet-green, and cliff swallows.

REPTILES Western fence lizard, sagebrush lizard, western whiptail, coast horned lizard, garter snake, gopher snake, striped racer, western rattlesnake, and common kingsnake.

Coast redwoods show signs of vigorous regrowth after the 1999 Kirk Complex Fires in the narrow ravines of Hare Creek Canyon.

Redwood Forests

California is blessed with Earth’s largest, oldest, and tallest living organisms. The largest tree in volume, the giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum), lords over the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada. The world’s oldest tree, the bristlecone pine (Pinus aristata), perches along the flanks of the White Mountains. The tallest living organism, the coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), grows along the California coast, making its southern home in the Santa Lucia Range.

Redwood forests form a narrow belt along the coast from central California to southern Oregon. They are prized for their longevity (1000 years or more) and height (stretching some 250 to 300 feet above the forest floor). The tallest trees and healthiest groves rise farther north at Redwood National Park. Big Sur represents the redwood’s southern stronghold, which peters out near Salmon Creek in southern Big Sur, close to the coastal California fog belt. As redwoods approach their southern limit, the trees are noticeably diminished in size.

In its warmer, drier southern range, this moisture-loving species is restricted to cool, damp valleys, canyons, ravines, and gullies. The fossil record proves that 50 million years ago redwoods were widespread throughout the Northern Hemisphere, including Greenland, Asia, and Europe. As the climate changed, so did the species’ range.

Although redwoods can live for thousands of years, the desire for lumber makes the fast-growing, massive trees commercially valuable. At the turn of the century, the Big Sur region sustained massive logging operations that cleared much of the ancient stands. Remaining old-growth redwood forests are confined to a few coastal drainages, including the Little Sur, Big Sur, Partington, McWay, Big Creek, and Palo Colorado Canyons.

A number of other moisture-loving trees, shrubs, and herbs grow in association with redwoods. Common neighboring trees include tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus), California bay (Umbellularia californica), western sycamore (Platanus racemosa), white alder (Alnus rhombifolia), and bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum). Although redwood canopies all but blot out the sun, a surprisingly dense understory of ferns, herbs, and shrubs obtain enough sunlight to carpet stream corridors and steep slopes along the forest floor. Understory plants include western sword fern (Polystichum munitum), bracken fern (Pteridium aqulinum), giant chain fern (Woodwardia fimbriata), American maidenhair fern (Adiantum pedatum), California maidenhair fern (Adiantum jordani), coastal wood fern (Dryopteris arguta), fairy lantern (Calochortus alkus), western hound’s-tongue (Cynoglossum grande), fairy bells (Disporum hookeri), western starflower (Trientalis latifolia), poison oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum), evergreen huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum), and redwood sorrel (Oxalis oregana).

The lush forest seems surprisingly void of wildlife. The understory supports few seed-bearing plants to attract herbivores and their predators. One of the most common plants, redwood sorrel, is even toxic to herbivores. Regardless, a few animals do thrive here. One notable and highly visible resident is the banana slug, a bright yellow gastropod that grazes on understory plants and fungi. Its bright coloration is a defense mechanism, signaling predators that the slug is extremely distasteful. Other common species include:

MAMMALS Trowbridge shrew and broad-handed mole.

BIRDS Steller’s jay, winter wren, brown creeper, Pacific slope flycatcher, dark-eyed junco, hermit thrush, varied thrush, American robins, chestnut-backed chickadee, common flickers, great horned owl, northern pygmy owl, and golden-crowned kinglet.

REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS Coast Range newt, red salamander, slender salamander, alligator lizard, western fence lizard, and sharp-tailed snake.

The ubiquitous banana slug

Riparian Woodland

By definition, riparian (riverside) woodlands follow clear water in Big Sur country. Characterized by moisture-loving trees, this community nestles alongside creeks, streams, and rivers in the heart of the wilderness. The most common trees are the deciduous western sycamore (Platanus racemosa), bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), red alder (Alnus rubra), white alder (Alnus rhombifolia), and several species of willow (Salix spp.). In fall the major drainages of the Santa Lucia Range, notably the Carmel and Big Sur Rivers and Arroyo Seco, boast vibrant hues as autumn leaves catch the slightest canyon breezes. In spring the forest flaunts such delicate moisture-loving flowers as leopard lily (Lilium pardalinum), giant stream orchid (Epipactus gigantean), scarlet monkeyflower (Mimulus cardinalis), red columbine (Aquilegia formosa), and thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus).

During spring tiger lilies adorn the banks of riparian corridors.

This is one of the best areas to view wildlife. Butterflies, dragonflies, amphibians, reptiles, fish, birds, and mammals all gather here to drink, hunt, forage, and mate. Resident species include:

MAMMALS Mule deer, mountain lion, bobcat, coyote, raccoon, gray fox, striped skunk, opossum, Pacific shrew, ornate shrew, western harvest mouse, deer mouse, dusky-footed woodrat, big brown bat, silver-haired bat, red bat, and hoary bat.

BIRDS American dipper, belted kingfisher, red-shouldered hawk, Cooper’s hawk, western screech owl, long-eared owl, downy woodpecker, white-headed woodpecker, black phoebe, willow flycatcher, violet-green swallow, tree swallow, plain titmouse, white-breasted nuthatch, Bewick’s wren, Swainson’s thrush, warbling vireo, yellow warbler, Wilson’s warbler, American goldfinch, lesser goldfinch, and song sparrow.

REPTILES Western pond turtle, western terrestrial garter snake, sharp-tailed snake, ringneck snake, rubber boa, California mountain kingsnake, western rattlesnake, western fence lizard, and alligator lizard.

FISH & AMPHIBIANS Pacific tree frog, steelhead trout, brown trout, rainbow trout, lamprey, arboreal salamander, red salamander, slender salamander, Coast Range newt, tiger salamander, bullfrog, and crayfish.

Grassland

Grasslands usually mix with coastal scrub along the slopes of the Santa Lucia Range. In the drier interior, they grow alongside arid thickets of chaparral on oak- and pine-studded hillsides. Grasslands also thrive along marine terraces and coastal bluffs, including El Sur Ranch north of Andrew Molera State Park, where cattle continually graze.

Those who believe the central coast to be void of seasonal changes have not taken a stroll through the grasslands of Big Sur. Following winter rains, vibrant green grasses sprout from the damp earth. This annual growth cycle may end before summer if little rain falls in spring. By late May, the rolling hills turn golden as the grasslands fade and lay dormant until the following winter’s rains.

Most grasses responsible for these seasonal bursts of color are exotic species to the California landscape. In the mid 19th century, settlers brought in invasive annual grasses to feed livestock. These species quickly outcompeted native perennial grasses and thrived in areas ravaged by grazing, fire, or landslides.

Though grasses are the dominant species, forbs and herbs also thrive here, weaving colorful tapestries along the open slopes of the Coast Range. Among the most recognized are the blue, purple, and orange hues of sky lupines (Lupinus nanus) and California poppies (Eschscholzia californica). Other fragile, ornate flowers include the padres shooting star (Dodecatheon clevelandii), California buttercup (Ranunculus californicus), Johnny-jump-up (Viola pedunculata), and blue dicks (Dichelostemma pulchella).

Seasonal changes are most dramatic within the grassland ecosystem, where vibrant new growth carpets the landscape.

Many animals forage and hunt in the grasslands, though few find safe refuge to nest and breed. Common species include:

MAMMALS Coyote, mule deer, bobcat, gray fox, pocket gopher, California ground squirrel, and long-tail weasel.

BIRDS Western meadowlark, grasshopper sparrow, savannah sparrow, lark sparrow, burrowing owl, horned lark, white-tailed kite, red-tailed hawk, red-shouldered hawk, American kestrel, golden eagle, barn owl, great horned owl, California quail, mourning dove, swallows, swifts, and finches.

REPTILES Gopher snake, western rattlesnake, yellow-bellied racer, ringneck snake, alligator lizard, and western fence lizard.

Oak Woodland

Majestic oak woodlands form some of Big Sur’s most picturesque, enchanting forests. The southern region shelters centuries-old blue and valley oaks, while coastal slopes are studded with sprawling coast live oaks draped with lacy lichens. The most common trees are coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia), blue oak (Quercus douglasii), California black oak (Quercus kelloggii), valley oak (Quercus lobata), and canyon live oak (Quercus chrysolepis). Oak woodlands vary from dense forests to grassy savannas, and plants from neighboring communities often occupy the understory.

Unfortunately, tens of thousands of tanoaks, coast live oaks, and black oaks between Big Sur and the Oregon border are dying from sudden oak death. Researchers have isolated a previously unknown fungal species they believe causes the disease. This pathogen is a member of the genus Phytophthora (Latin for plant destroyer) and is related to species blamed for such agricultural plagues as the Irish potato famine. Scientists are conducting far-ranging research to determine how the fungus spreads and how it can be stopped. It’s critical to slow the spread of the fungus by preventing the movement of infected leaves, wood, and soil. Visitors to Big Sur’s oak woodlands should clean their tires, shoes, and animals’ feet thoroughly before leaving the area.

Acorns are the most important food item for animals living in or around oak woodlands. In fall, as acorns ripen and fall, the forest chatters with excitement as birds and mammals flock to harvest the nutritious nuts. Resident species include:

MAMMALS Mule deer, bobcat, mountain lion, gray fox, coyote, striped skunk, wild boar (introduced from Europe), California mouse, western gray squirrel, pocket gopher, Audubon cottontail, lump-nosed bat, big brown bat, silver-haired bat, red bat, and hoary bat.

Sprawling black oaks filter views northwest toward the ocean along the Buckeye Trail.

BIRDS Western bluebird; chestnut-backed chickadee; northern flicker; acorn, Lewis’, and Nuttall’s woodpeckers; violet-green and tree swallows; scrub jay; common raven; plain titmouse; bushtit; white-breasted nuthatch; orange-crowned and Townsend’s warblers; Hutton’s vireo; black-headed grosbeak; band-tailed pigeon; mourning dove; western screech and great horned owls; Cooper’s, red-tailed, and red-shouldered hawks; and American kestrel.

REPTILES Western fence lizard, alligator lizard, western skink, gopher snake, common kingsnake, and western rattlesnake.

AMPHIBIANS Arboreal salamander, California newt, and western toad.

Mixed Evergreen Forest

The mixed evergreen forest is an extremely varied community, in which endemic, rare, isolated, or disjunct coniferous species grow amid a diverse array of hardwood trees. Member species include the Santa Lucia fir, Coulter pine, ponderosa pine, sugar pine, gray pine, Monterey pine, Douglas fir, and incense cedar.

Nestled along deep, dark canyon floors and atop the Santa Lucias’ dry, rocky slopes and summits lives the rarest, most distinct, and narrowly distributed of all fir species, the endemic Santa Lucia fir. They are easily identified by droopy, densely foliated crowns that extend from the base of the tree with lower branches that nearly touch the ground. The tree’s differing habitats share one characteristic: each is relatively fire resistant. Although the range is subject to periodic wildfires, the Santa Lucia fir is not fire adapted and cannot survive in areas susceptible to burning.

Fossil evidence from the Miocene period (22 million to 6 million years ago) proves the Santa Lucia fir was once widely distributed throughout western North America. During the Miocene, the climate was much warmer and wetter than today, including regular summer rainfall. During the Pliocene period (5.2 to 1.6 million years ago), the climate cooled, leading to the ice ages of the Pleistocene (1.6 million to 11,000 years ago). The Santa Lucia fir could not withstand these colder, drier conditions and thus retreated to milder coastal climates.

Botanist Thomas Coulter first described the Coulter pine in 1832 near Cone Peak. Its enormous, sharp-spurred cones are the heaviest of any pine species. The tree grows in association with canyon live oaks, tanoaks, California bays, and madrones. On the flanks of Junipero Serra Peak, Coulter pines grow alongside stately sugar pines.

A Scottish botanist first described sugar pines in 1831 while climbing Cone Peak. These largest of all pines boast enormous cones that are longer and more slender than the Coulter pine’s cones. Distinct from their Sierra Nevada and Southern California cousins, Big Sur’s sugar pines are restricted to isolated peaks and higher elevation slopes atop Cone and Junipero Serra Peaks.

Climate change millions of years ago isolated this stand of Santa Lucia fir to the milder coastal climate of Big Sur.

The incense cedar is another disjunct tree removed from its Sierra Nevada population. When crushed, its flat, scaled foliage emits a pungent aroma. Botanists speculate that this tree was also once widespread, but as the climate warmed over the past 10,000 years and wildfires became more commonplace, its range shrank drastically.

The mixed evergreen plant community shares many of the plant and animal species commonly seen in Big Sur’s oak woodlands. Consult that wildlife list for representative species.

BIG SUR SEASONS

Big Sur’s steep, rugged topography and proximity to the ocean lead to a diverse array of regional microclimates. Deep, narrow canyons remain shady and cool even in sweltering summer heat. High, barren peaks regularly freeze and receive snow in winter. Cool onshore breezes sweep coastal terraces, while the sun beats down on arid south-facing slopes. Though visitors may complain about a lack of defined seasons along the coast, locals know Big Sur is markedly different and beautiful each season.

Summer

In summer, inland temperatures along the Santa Lucia Range often soar into the 90s Fahrenheit during the day and drop to the 40s Fahrenheit by night both in the valleys and at high elevation. This contrasts dramatically with stable, cool temperatures along the coast, which generally range from the low 50s to mid 60s Fahrenheit.

Separated from the ocean by 2000-foot Pfeiffer Ridge, the Big Sur River gorge is much warmer than the fog-shrouded beaches to the west. Campers and hikers flock to deep swimming holes within the gorge for bracing dips. Occasionally, the fog encroaches inland and is drawn up-canyon, bringing gray and overcast conditions even to high ridges.

Although rain is unlikely in summer, tropical low-pressure systems occasionally approach the coast in the form of puffy cumulus clouds. As this warm, humid air moves in, thunderheads may develop, spawning lightning and rain. During periodic summer droughts, wildfires are a real threat, so residents are watchful for any signs of lightning or smoke. Lightning sparked the 180,000-acre Marble–Cone Fire (1977), the 60,000-acre Rat Creek Fire (1985), the 90,000-acre Kirk Complex Fires (1999), and the 160,000-acre Basin Complex Fire (2008).

Fall

Indian summer brings warmer temperatures to the coast in fall. As the North Pacific High dissipates, nearshore cold-water upwelling stops, lowering humidity and driving fog well offshore. Views from high mountain peaks are outstanding in the crisp, clear air. Northwesterly winds diminish, and coastal waters become flat, calm, and warm (upper 50s instead of low 50s Fahrenheit). Deep within the riparian woodlands, deciduous trees change color and shed their kaleidoscopic leaves on the canyon floors.

Winter

Winter storms generally approach the central California coast from the northwest or southwest. Forming in the cold regions of the North Pacific and Bering Sea, northern fronts bring cold air masses and moderate rainfall. Forming over warm water in the South Pacific, southern storms typically bring extensive rainfall.

Arriving on the Big Sur coast, the moisture-laden air lashes the steep terrain and is forced upward. As the air rises, it cools and condenses, releasing moisture as rain or snow. When the North Pacific High lingers into winter, it prevents storms from reaching the coast and often leads to severe winter droughts.

Precipitation varies dramatically from year to year. Rainfall along the coast averages about 40 inches annually, while some 90 inches fall near the crests and ridges. In winter the high peaks are dusted in snow, which may remain on the ground for weeks or even months above 3500 feet.

A rain shadow effect occurs along eastern slopes, similar to that seen along the eastern slopes of the Sierra. Moisture-laden air deposits its precipitation along the rising western slopes and ridges, leaving eastern slopes drier on average, as the air warms and descends into the Salinas Valley. King City averages only about 11 inches annually.

Spring

Spring is glorious along the Big Sur coast. Plants and animals awake from dormancy, and the sights and sounds of life abound. In the wake of winter rains, grasslands and forests burst forth with new growth. Colorful, fragrant wildflowers carpet the grasslands and ridges, while oak and riparian woodlands bud in vibrant green hues. Views are spectacular on cold, crisp days.

The arrival of spring varies with the timing of winter rains. If rains continue until May, expect incredible wildflower displays through summer, while an end to rains in March turns the hillsides gold as dry season descends on Big Sur. Expect encroaching fog by late spring as the North Pacific High returns offshore, spawning cold-water upwelling.