Читать книгу Principles and Practices of Teaching and Training - Ann Gravells - Страница 12

2

Factors contributing to learning

Introduction

There are many factors which can contribute to learning taking place. These include the environment, a learner’s motivation to learn, the challenges they and you might face, and the different ways in which learning can occur.

This chapter will explore the variety of learners you might teach, their differing age ranges, the locations in which learning takes place and possible challenges. Theories regarding how people learn are covered, as are theoretical principles and models.

This chapter will cover the following topics:

• Teaching and learning environments

• Learner age ranges and modes of attendance

• Motivation

• Challenges

• Learning preferences and styles

• Teaching and learning theories, principles and models

Teaching and learning environments

Teaching and learning can take place in a variety of environments and locations such as: classrooms, the workplace, training rooms, prisons, outdoors and online. Although learning can take place almost anywhere, not all locations and environments will be totally suitable. However, it’s how you ensure that learning takes place that matters. It helps if you can convey interest, enthusiasm and passion for your subject. It also helps to create a climate which is conducive to learning and mutual respect. Ideally, you should want your learners to leave your session wanting to come back for more.

You might be restricted by the availability of particular rooms or resources; therefore you need to be imaginative with what’s available to you. Your learners don’t need to know about any organisational problems you might encounter, as your professionalism should enable you to teach your subject effectively. However, you do need to take into account any health, safety and security issues, and let your organisation know if you have any concerns.

You will need to establish a purposeful learning environment where your learners feel safe, secure, confident and valued. The venue, toilets and refreshment areas should all be accessible and appropriate for everyone. However, you might not be able to control these aspects. Having some advance knowledge about your learners will help you check that everything is suitable for them. If it’s not, you might want to talk to your learners beforehand to see if any compromises can be reached. You can find out any particular learner needs from the results of initial assessments (covered in Chapter 3) or by talking to your learners. If your session includes a break, make sure you tell your learners what time this will be, and for how long. If you don’t, learners might not be concentrating on their learning, but thinking about when they can go to the toilet or where they can get a drink.

What is on the wall, or what is visible from the windows, could have an impact upon learning. If there is a lovely view of trees and birds outside the window, your learners might be more interested in what’s happening outside than inside. It might be possible to use blinds or curtains to limit the distraction. If there are posters on the walls with stimulating pictures and words, your learners will probably look at them, and subconsciously take in the information. If learners have carried out activities which involved them creating posters or writing on flip chart paper, these could be added to the walls. Leaving them there as a visual aid could help the learning process. However, you will probably need to check in advance how you can attach things to walls, and whether or not you are allowed to.

Music or sounds can also be useful to aid learning. Tranquil music played as learners enter the room could have a calming effect upon behaviour. Upbeat music while energetic activities are being carried out could stimulate learning. If you do use music, it’s useful to bear in mind that certain sounds can bring about memories, some of which might not be good for certain learners. You will also need to be aware of any potential of a breach to copyright legislation which applies to some music. You can get information regarding this from the Performing Rights Society; a weblink is at the end of this chapter. Music is also useful during certain activities for particular subjects such as yoga, tai chi and dancing.

If you are teaching a practical subject, you will need a suitable environment such as a workshop or a laboratory so that you can demonstrate and your learners can practise. If you are teaching a theoretical subject, you may be fine in a room with tables and chairs, but you might need a computer, data projector and/or an interactive whiteboard. Internet and/or wifi access might not always be available, therefore you might like to check in advance. If you are not teaching a practical subject, for example, you are delivering a one day event or a seminar, it could be in a venue you have never been to. If this is the case, it would be useful to telephone, email, or visit in advance to check what facilities are available, and find out how accessible everything is. You could also send out some pre-event materials informing people how to get there, and what facilities are available. Creating a good first impression and being organised should help your learners feel they are receiving a professional service. If they are paying to attend a session with you, they will not expect a second-best service or poor facilities.

Class sizes could affect the learning process, in both positive and negative ways. If you teach on a one-to-one basis or to a small group, you will be able to get to know your learners well and devote more time to them. If you have a large group, this might be more difficult. You might have no control over class sizes; however, you can try using different teaching and learning approaches and activities to get around this (covered in Chapter 5).

Room layouts

An important influence upon the way your session progresses, and how you and your learners can communicate, will be the room layout. You may not be able to control this if the furniture is in fixed positions: for example, a room which has computers on tables, or a laboratory with immobile workstations. Hopefully, the chairs can be moved and this might be a way to ensure all your learners can face you when you need them to hear what you are saying and see what you are doing.

If you can, it is best to create an environment where learners can communicate with each other, and see and hear everything you are doing and saying. Ideally, you should move around the room regularly and interact with your learners, rather than staying at the front of the room or sitting behind a desk.

Some training rooms have a fixed projector with a screen at the front, which all learners will need to be able to see if you are using a visual presentation. However, some modern training rooms now have smaller television screens strategically placed around the room. These enable anyone who is not near the front to see the presentation nearer to where they are seated. If this is the case, you may need to seek technical support if you are not familiar with how to operate the system.

If you can choose the layout of the room, you could decide on the furniture arrangement based on the teaching and learning activities to be carried out. For example, placing tables in groups (also known as cabaret or café style) for group activities, or having tables in rows for a lecture if a lot of learners will be attending.

Tables in groups

This cabaret or café style is an effective way to enable learners to work together and to interact during group activities. All learners can still see the teacher and any presentation materials being used. The style is informal and the teacher can see everyone. If room permits, tables could be moved so that they are not so close together, or placed at different angles. The teacher could sit beside the desk rather than behind so as not to create a barrier, and move around the room when possible.

Figure 2.1 Group layout (cabaret or café style)

Tables in rows

This classroom style does not lead to effective communication between learners. However, all learners can see what is going on and see the teacher. This layout is useful when presenting information if group work is not required. The teacher would need good voice projection to reach all learners at the back of the room or use a microphone. Without the tables, more chairs could be positioned tightly in rows, allowing many learners to attend a session at the same time. This is known as lecture style and could involve the use of benches instead of chairs. If chairs are used, they might have a moveable arm on which to rest notes. If a learner is sitting in the middle of a row and needs to leave the room for any reason, they would disrupt the rest of the row of learners. If there are many rows, learners at the back might not be able to see or hear very well. This style could enable learners to not pay much interest, and the teacher might not notice.

Figure 2.2 Classroom-style layout

Horseshoe or U-shape

This style allows for large group discussions between the learners and the teacher, but is not good for small group work. Learners can still see the teacher and any presentation materials being used. Learners sitting at the very ends of tables may feel excluded from the group when discussions take place. More tables could be added if necessary to close the gap and create an oblong shape; the teacher then becomes part of the group.

Figure 2.3 Horseshoe or U-shape layout

Boardroom style

This oblong (or it could be a square) style allows for discussions and group work where a large table area is needed. If the teacher sits at the table with the learners, everyone can communicate and see each other. If the teacher sits separately, some learners will have their backs to them, and not be able to see a presentation screen if used.

Figure 2.4 Boardroom-style layout

Other layouts

If possible, you could experiment with other layouts (see Figure 2.5 page 76) to see how effective they are for the type of teaching and learning activities which will take place. This can include the teacher as part of the group or not, using tables or not, or a different approach such as chairs in a circle to include all learners as well as the teacher. However, sometimes tables can create barriers.

If you are delivering a session at an external venue, such as a hotel or a conference centre, you might be able to request certain layouts which will be set up beforehand for you. If you need to move the furniture, you should get a member of staff to help you beforehand and again afterwards. You will need to allow space for movement around the room, and for bags and coats to ensure there are no obstructions. If you can, return the room to its original layout at the end of your session.

Activity

Take a look at the figures denoting different styles of room layout. List the advantages and disadvantages of each for your subject. You might like to discuss these with a colleague or friend. How could you overcome any disadvantages? What other room layouts could you use for your subject and why?

Figure 2.5 Other layouts that could be used

Managing the learning environment

The seating arrangements in a room can have a big impact on learning. People like their comfort zones and you may find that learners will sit in the same place each time they are with you. This is often the place they sat during the first session. This is useful to help you remember their names. You can sketch a seating plan and note who sits where, as well as who has not participated or who has caused disruption. Your sketch and notes will help you plan future sessions, for example, to make sure everyone participates. Remembering and using learners’ names will show respect and encourage them to talk to you in confidence if they have any concerns. Some learners like to sit with their friends which might not help them learn from others, or work with others in the group. If you tell your learners from the start that you will move them, for example, when carrying out group activities, they will become used to it. If you suddenly decide half way through a course, they might not take it well. Moving learners around or getting them to work with others can either help or hinder their learning, depending upon the group dynamics and maturity of the learners.

If possible, arrive early to check the layout of the room, and to prepare any materials and equipment. You might find the room hasn’t been left in a suitable condition by the previous user and you will need time to prepare it.

Example

Harry arrived at 9.25 a.m. ready for his session which commenced at 9.30 a.m. He found the room was untidy with rubbish on the floor, three chairs were missing, writing was on the board, and the data projector wasn’t working. He became very anxious as his learners started arriving. He therefore didn’t give a professional impression and was flustered when he commenced the session, missing out some vital information as a result.

In this example, the previous occupant of the room had not left it in a fit state for the next person. If this occurs regularly, it might be an idea to talk to someone who can influence those using the rooms to leave them in a fit state.

There may be instances when you have no option but to arrive at the time the session is due to commence. For example, if another group is timetabled in the room prior to your session. When this is the case, you won’t know what state the room will be in. You could ask your learners to wait outside the room for a few minutes until you check it’s acceptable. Alternatively, you could let your learners come in, but tell them you need a few minutes to set up. If this is the case, and depending upon the maturity of your learners, you could ask them to chat among themselves about the topic to be covered.

Health and safety considerations

Learners are entitled to learn in a healthy and safe environment. If you see a potential hazard, be proactive and do something about it or report it: don’t wait for an accident to happen. In the UK, under the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act (1974), health and safety is not only the responsibility of your employer, but that of you and your learners too. For example, if a learner sees a trailing cable, they should let you know, so that you can report it. Your learners may need to wear protective clothing or use hazardous substances for some activities; you will, therefore, need to find out what your organisation’s procedures are for these. You might be using electrical equipment which will need checking regularly by an appointed person in your organisation. You will also need to make sure that any floor surfaces are not slippery, that any trailing wires are out of the way, and any equipment your learners will be working with is safe and reliable. If you are teaching a subject that could be dangerous or hazardous, you may need to carry out risk assessments, which should be documented: for example, if you are teaching hairdressing and using chemicals. If safe to do so, you could include your learners in this process, to help them identify any issues or concerns prior to their use.

You will need to know your organisation’s accident, fire, emergency and first aid procedures. You should inform your learners of these during their first meeting with you. If you have any learners who started after the course commenced, you should always give them this information. You could include it in a handout, or it might already be in a learner handbook or accessible electronically.

You could have learners who have particular individual needs, such as diabetes. They might need to go somewhere private to take medication. You will need to know who they are, what you need to do, and who you need to contact in case of an emergency.

Extension activity

Think about the subject you would like to teach and the environment you will use. What health and safety considerations might there be? Are there any restrictions, perhaps due to age, or regarding the resources and equipment your learners can use? Are there any records or checks you will need to complete beforehand, or anyone you will need to liaise with? If so, find out what you need to do so that you are prepared when necessary.

Learner age ranges and modes of attendance

People who participate in further education will be of different ages: for example, learners in a school aged 14–16 or in a college aged 16 and above. The modes of attendance will also vary, for example: part time, full time, learning on-the-job, through distance learning or perhaps in a secure environment such as a prison.

Age ranges

The age range of the learners you will teach may bring interesting challenges, whether you are teaching in a small or a large group, or training individually on a one-to-one basis (covered in Chapter 5). This section will explore some of the age ranges you might come across such as:

• 14–16 year olds

• 16–19 year olds

• adult learners

• mixed age ranges.

14–16 year olds

The 14–16 age group may still be attending compulsory education and certain regulations, safeguarding and disciplinary procedures will apply. For example, you could be teaching in an academy, public, private or free school, college or other organisation. These might have different requirements to a secondary, grammar or comprehensive school. You might be teaching learners who are in residential care; for example, physically disabled youngsters who are entitled to education, but are not necessarily integrated within mainstream establishments.

Teaching this age group might bring with it issues that you will have to deal with. For example, challenging behaviour, truancy, peer pressure, negative attitudes, disruption, bullying, and the discreet use of mobile phones. Learners might want to be treated as adults but they are still classed as children. It would be beneficial to set clear boundaries and establish routines so that a climate of respect can exist. You will need patience and understanding, and must treat everyone in the group as an individual, remaining firm but fair to all. To help maintain respect, you might not want to be on first name terms, nor reveal anything too personal about yourself.

This age range might be used to a style of teaching different to that you might use with adults. For example, they might have been used to working through worksheets, reading handouts, and preparing for tests and exams. They might not have gained the ability to make notes, to practise skills, or to carry out research and present their findings. You will need to find out what they can and can’t do in this respect. Having a structure to your sessions, i.e. starting on time, having frequent changes of activities, recapping points regularly, and finishing on time, might help the attention and participation of your learners.

You might be teaching within a school environment and have to follow their rules and regulations. Alternatively, the learners might come from a school to your organisation. Sometimes, a different environment may alter their behaviour, i.e. they might act more maturely, or act over confidently and become disruptive in front of their peers.

Some learners may have learning difficulties; others may come with a support assistant to help them. However, all learners will have something positive to contribute to the session. You will need to ensure your delivery enables everyone to participate in the learning experience, and does not exclude anyone.

Ensuring your sessions are meaningful, with lots of interesting and practical tasks, will help classroom management. You might be able to relate what you are talking about to your own and your learners’ current and past experiences. Bringing your subject to life with anecdotes, and relating it to current topics, trends, and the work place, should help your learners understand what you are talking about.

Younger learners often need lots of praise and encouragement, they appreciate you listening to them and supporting them when necessary. Praise should be about behaviours and attitudes, as well as progress and achievements. Many younger learners like to use technology whenever possible, so incorporating this appropriately could be beneficial. Some learners might not be performing well in other subjects with other teachers. They might, therefore, have a negative attitude towards you and/or the subject. Some might act more maturely, and others quite childishly. You will need to get to know your learners as individuals, and motivate them to learn. This can be quite hard with younger learners if they haven’t enjoyed their learning experiences so far. You may need to help build their self-esteem and encourage them more than you would with older learners. Try and be approachable, and listen to what your learners have to say. If you ask a question and they answer wrongly, don’t dismiss it, but try and relate their answer to a real situation which is relevant to the subject. Try and include all learners during the session and make them feel their contribution, however small, is valued. If you are enthusiastic about the subject, hopefully they will be.

16–19 year olds

The 16–19 age group includes learners who might still be in compulsory education, apprentices on a training programme, and learners on a part-time, full-time or day release course. Non-attendance might affect their funding allowance if they receive one, and you might be required to sign documents to prove they were present. Some challenges that you may encounter with the 14–16 age range might be the same as those encountered with the 16–19 age range. For example, if learners have to attend as part of a day release programme and are not attending voluntarily, they might not pay as much attention, or even turn up. However, some learners may have been in (or are still in) employment and will have knowledge and experience that can be drawn on during the sessions. You might, therefore, have a mixture of learners in the same group, for example, some who have recently left school, some who have been in employment for a while, and some who are unemployed. As a result, levels of maturity may differ. However, some school leavers might prefer being in an adult environment to a school environment and, as such, pay more attention. Never assume, under- or over-estimate your learners’ skills, knowledge and understanding, or make any presumptions about them or their past experiences.

Depending upon your subject, you will find your own ways to reach each individual, giving them confidence to progress with their learning. Always give positive encouragement to retain motivation, and treat all questions from learners as valid, no matter how silly they may seem to you (or them) at the time.

Adult learners

Adult learners, aged 19 and over, are usually motivated to learn, either for their own personal benefit or for professional reasons. They might be retraining to enhance their job role, perhaps as a result of redundancy, or wanting a new challenge or opportunity. Their motivation ensures they are keen and enthusiastic learners, usually attending voluntarily in their own time and probably at unsociable hours. However, some adults might have been told to attend a course either by their employer or as part of a programme to help them gain employment; therefore, their motivation might not be as high as you would like it to be. You might find with some adult learners that they feel they know more than they do. You will need to be tactful at finding out what they do and don’t know to help them realise this. You might also feel some learners know more than you. This is nothing to worry about and can be used to your advantage. For example, if you don’t know how to use a particular software program very well, you could involve a learner who does. This might make them feel good that they have shown the teacher what to do. However, some older learners might feel they know more than you, and may try to dominate the session. Let them have their say at first and then state that you value their input based on their experience. However, if they do try to dominate, you will have to tactfully ask them not to interrupt you, perhaps because you are short of time to cover everything in the session. Alternatively, when explaining something, you could add the words ‘as some of you may know….’ or ‘some of you might already be familiar with this’. This will show that you are aware of their prior knowledge and experience.

Some adult learners might be apprehensive if they have not attended education for a few years. You will need to reassure them that you are there to help them. Depending upon your subject, there will be ways of integrating your learners’ experiences to benefit everyone.

Example

Haani teaches a weekly two-hour information technology course, which will last eight weeks. There are ten learners aged 19 to 65. As part of the first session he asked them to introduce themselves and say a little about their experience of using a computer. He soon realised the older learners had very little experience and three had never even switched on a computer. The younger learners are more confident and have used computers at school and home. He therefore decides to sit a younger learner next to an older learner so they can help and support each other. Each learner will be working individually through a series of tasks at their own pace and can ask each other questions when necessary. They can therefore learn from each other as well as from Haani.

Adults are often used to being active and having self-discipline when it comes to learning. They are frequently confident to ask questions and to challenge theories. They often like to relate new learning to their own experiences. If you are asked a question you cannot answer, say you will find out. Then make sure you tell them the answer next time you see them, or email them in the meantime. While you are expected to have an in-depth knowledge of your subject, you won’t know everything and this is fine. It’s best to be honest and admit when you don’t know something rather than bluff your way out of it.

Quite often, adults are not afraid of making a mistake as they have learnt this through experience, whereas younger learners would not want to embarrass themselves in front of their peers. Adults are often keen to tell you and the group their experiences and how they have learnt from them. Conversely, some adults might lack the confidence to discuss things in front of their peers until they get to know them well.

When teaching adults, try and plan tasks in a logical order, relate theory to practice and involve them with discussions of their own experiences. Always clearly state the aim of your session and what the learners will do. With all learners, you should check their prior knowledge and experience, recap and summarise topics, repeat key points, and ask questions on an ongoing basis to check that learning is taking place.

Adults will usually make the effort to arrive on time, have the necessary materials, e.g. pens, paper and textbooks, and not be disruptive. However, you need to consider their personal circumstances and situations: for example, if you are delivering an evening class and some of your learners have been at work all day, looking after children, travelling far, or haven’t yet eaten.

Some adults might have had negative experiences at school or of previous courses they have attended. This might have stayed with them and could affect their current learning. Try and get to know each learner as an individual to enable you to support their learning in an appropriate way. You could be on first name terms with adults and have a more informal delivery style if you feel this is appropriate.

Mixed age ranges

It could be that you will teach a mixture of age ranges within the same group. This could affect the learners’ attitudes and the way they act and interact with each other. The demographics of populations are continually changing. What follows is generalised and not meant to be stereotypical, but to give you an idea of the different generations.

The veteran generation (aged 65 plus) may have been with the same employer for a long time and be thinking of retiring. They have probably paid off their mortgage, have children who have left home and therefore have different priorities from younger generations.

The baby boomers (born 1946–1965) might be working fewer hours and increasing their leisure pursuits, have grown-up children and a low mortgage. This generation will increase over the next few years and may lead to a larger number of older than younger people in the workplace.

Generation X (born 1966–1976) might be mid-career, have had several jobs, and perhaps experienced redundancy and unemployment along the way. They might have a large mortgage and a growing family.

Generation Y (born 1977–1994) might be unemployed, be in training, be first or second jobbers. They could still be living with their parents, have few responsibilities and possibly have debts. They use technology a great deal and the line between work and social use can become blurred.

Generation Z or the millennium generation (born 1995 onwards) have had lifelong access to technology, the internet and social media. Access to multimedia to such an extent can lead to a change in communication methods, which to other generations can look like a lack of social manners. Communication becomes via technology rather than face to face. This can lead to poor spelling and grammar when writing. Personal aspects often take priority over work due to the immediate and switched on lives they lead. This generation has been subjected to a fame culture through the many reality television shows, and is often influenced by celebrities and fashion.

With these different generations come different aspirations, expectations, attitudes and values towards work. As a result, attitudes might be different towards their peers or indeed towards you as their teacher.

Activity

How do you think the different age ranges of learners could affect the way you teach and the way they learn? What challenges might you encounter with each age group listed and how could you overcome them?

Modes of attendance

The modes of attendance of learners may vary depending upon when and where your courses are offered. Not all learners will attend traditional classes, some might take a distance learning course or learn on-the-job if they are employed. This section will explore some of the modes of attendance you might come across such as:

• apprentice learners

• distance learners

• offender learners

• part-time or full-time

• workplace learners.

Apprentice learners

Apprenticeships are usually for vocational subjects and should lead to a full-time job at the end of the training period. Some apprenticeship programmes also include formal qualifications but all will involve the apprentice working towards a set of standards. Learners who are on an apprenticeship programme will participate in a combination of practical training in the workplace, known as on-the-job, and training elsewhere, known as off-the-job. Training can also take place near to the job, for example, in a separate area such as a mobile unit on a construction site.

If you are involved with an apprentice learner, it might be to carry out training and/or assessment in their place of work. Alternatively, it might be that you are working in a training organisation or a college and the learner comes to you. You might not know much about where the apprentice works, or you might be able to visit them at work to see how they are progressing. You should always liaise with their supervisor regarding what they are doing at work and the progress they are making. It’s important to make sure that what you are planning to teach ties in with what the learner is doing in their place of work. Off-the-job training should complement on-the-job training and vice versa.

There will be a set of standards which apprentices will need to have achieved by the end of their programme. You might not be the person who assesses what you have taught, as end point assessment (covered in Chapter 10) is usually by someone the learner has not met before. This is a bit like learning to drive, you might teach the person to drive but someone else will assess them during the test. However, you will still need to formatively assess the learner’s progress and ensure that they are ready for end point assessment. If the learner is also taking a qualification, the usual assessment requirements will apply. Apprenticeship learners might also be required to take qualifications in English, maths and digital skills. You may need to support them with these skills and liaise with the person responsible for their progress in these subjects.

Distance learners

Distance learners are those that are learning away from the formal teaching environment. They might be isolated from the teacher and their peers. Learners need to be self-motivated, committed and able to devote a suitable amount of time to this type of study. Distance learning could involve the use of technology or the use of learning materials which are sent and returned via the postal service.

Learning is increasingly taking place online, enabling it to occur at any time and in any place where there is an internet-enabled device. Courses can be tailored to meet individual requirements and learners can work at their own pace. If you are teaching online, you might never meet your learners, but communicate via the online program (covered in Chapter 8).

Offender learners

These learners might be in a young offender institution, on remand or detention, or in a prison. It might be compulsory that they attend various training sessions, and while some will be keen to learn, others may not. This will bring its own challenges regarding motivation and there might also be some behavioural issues to contend with. You will need to allow extra time before and after a session to go through the security procedures. If you are teaching in this type of environment you will need to be careful not to allow yourself to become conditioned to situations. You need to remember that your learners are there to gain skills and knowledge to help them upon their release. You will also have strict guidelines and security procedures to follow. It could be that some of your learners are released or moved elsewhere part way through their training. Others might start at different points and will need to catch up on what has been taught so far. Some may drop in and out of your sessions due to the prison regime, perhaps where offenders are attending other activities such as physical education. You might even arrive to teach a session and find that the learners have been locked in their rooms due to operational issues. Some might be in court or with visitors and will miss a session. Keeping an accurate and up-to-date track of individual progress and achievement will be important. Records may need to be passed onto other places if the learners move elsewhere.

Part-time or full-time

Some learners who have employment, family or other commitments might prefer to study on a part-time basis. This could be to spread their learning over a longer time frame, to help with their budgeting and travel constraints. Classes might range from one to three hours a week to one day a week or more.

Full-time learning has different hours and time frames attached depending upon the subject and funding. Some full-time attended classes might only be 16 hours per week, with the rest of the time for self-study. Others could be much more and spread over different days and times. Some courses are classed as intensive, meaning the subject is covered quickly in a smaller amount of time. Others might take from a few weeks to several years.

It’s useful to keep in touch with your learners between classes as they may need ongoing encouragement to remain motivated, whether part-time or full-time.

The classes might be traditionally attended and take place during the day, the evening or the weekend. Alternatively, they might be by distance learning via a postal or online training programme.

Workplace learners

Workplace learners are those who are learning in their place of work and could be aged 16 and upwards. They might be learning a new task or a procedure, be observed to meet certain standards, or receive training as part of an apprenticeship programme. The way you teach or train in the workplace will usually be on an individual or small group basis. If you are also based in the same working environment as the learners, it will give you the opportunity to spend more time with them. However, it might also mean you are interrupted regularly to give advice and support. You will need to balance your other priorities such as the commitments and deadlines of your own job role.

You might be required to train a learner who is attending your organisation as part of a work experience programme. They could be with you one day a week or for a full week or more. Even though they might not be in paid employment, you should treat them as a member of staff and make them feel welcome. They might have certain tasks they need to learn and carry out as part of their training programme. Therefore, you might need to assess their progress and liaise with staff from the organisation they are from. Work experience isn’t about making the tea and carrying out menial jobs; it’s about carrying out real job roles, but under supervision.

Extension activity

If you could teach any age range or any type of learner, in any location or environment, what would this be and why? Now consider the reality of who you will teach and where. How different are your responses to the first question and what does this tell you?

Motivation

Motivation is the incentive or reason why someone chooses to do something. It’s useful to be aware of what motivates your learners, as their enthusiasm might affect their learning (in a positive or a negative way) and possibly their behaviour. A learner attending a session because they have been told to, may not be as motivated as a learner who is there because they want to be. It’s also useful to know what your learners are expecting from the course, as it might differ from what they will receive. Finding out the expectations of your learners and what motivates them, should help you deliver the programme in a way that will lead to successful learner achievement. Expectations could be ascertained during the first session simply by asking. If your learners’ expectations don’t match with what will take place, tell them why. Learners will want to know what’s in it for them and why they should attend. They need to know the value of the course to them either personally or professionally. It could be that they have been recommended to take a course or are on the wrong course and didn’t realise it. It’s best to find this out at the beginning, rather than part way through.

Motivation is either intrinsic (from within) meaning the learner wants to learn for their own fulfilment, or extrinsic (from without) meaning there may be an external factor motivating them: for example, a promotion at work. Table 2.1 lists some examples of internal and external reasons why people are motivated to learn.

Table 2.1 Examples of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation factors

If learners are keen and proactive towards learning, they should be self-motivated and want to learn. For example, obtaining the relevant resources and textbooks, asking for help when necessary, getting actively involved during sessions, and taking control of their studies. Conversely, if learners are passive, their motivation to learn will be less. For example, expecting the teacher or trainer to supply their resources, not asking for help when necessary, not participating during the session, and not wanting to take control of their studies. Passive learners might blame the teacher or trainer when they don’t achieve something, whereas active learners might just blame themselves. If you can be positive and tell all your learners that you believe they can achieve, this will hopefully help to motivate them.

You could motivate your learners by using activities which are interactive rather than just talking to them. People are becoming accustomed to being more interactive due to social media and television. For example, some popular live television programmes encourage their audiences to get involved with online polls, emails and texts. News and weather programmes also encourage interaction by asking viewers to email or upload pictures and videos. This way, people feel engaged, are involved and are active, rather than passive. Keeping your learners active and involved will hopefully keep them motivated to learn.

Activity

If you are currently teaching, do you know what has motivated each of your learners to attend your sessions? If not, try and find out so that you can maintain their motivation.

If you are not currently teaching, think about what motivated you to learn something recently, and how that motivation had a positive or negative impact on what you did. There are useful texts and websites to support motivation and behaviour listed at the end of this chapter, which you might like to read.

Whatever level of motivation your learners have, will be transformed, for better or worse, by what happens during their experience with you. You, therefore, need to promote a professional relationship that leads to individual trust and respect. Some learners may seem naturally enthusiastic about learning, but many need or expect you to inspire and engage them. It’s hard to get someone to do something if they can’t see a real benefit for themselves. You could try and relate the topic to something they are interested in, such as a hobby or a leisure activity. You could also relate the learning to how it will be applied in practice in the workplace. You might have stories you can tell your learners if you have worked in the subject area previously.

Many factors can affect a learner’s motivation to work and to learn, for example: an interest in the subject matter, perception of its usefulness, a general desire to achieve, self-confidence and self-esteem, as well as patience and persistence. Not all learners are motivated by the same values, needs, desires or wants. Some of your learners will be motivated by the approval of others, and some by overcoming personal challenges.

To help motivate your learners you can:

• agree some basic ground rules so that everyone feels safe and secure

• ask open questions to keep them involved (ones that begin with who, what, when, where, why and how – not closed questions, which just lead to yes or no responses)

• avoid creating intense competition, although some competition can be engaging and fun

• be aware of attention-span limits (some learners may lose focus quickly)

• give ongoing constructive feedback so that learners know how they are progressing

• give praise and encouragement when it’s deserved

• maintain an organised and orderly atmosphere

• make tasks interesting, practical and relevant

• negotiate realistic and achievable targets

• not talking down to your learners or making them feel silly or embarrassed

• offer support when necessary

• stretch and challenge each learner’s potential

• treat learners with respect and as individuals

• try not to be too critical, but be positive when you can

• use learners’ names to show you know them as individuals

• use icebreakers and energisers to get learners actively working together

• vary your teaching and assessment approaches to reach all learning preferences.

Keeping yourself motivated might also be a challenge. There could be situations that occur which might make you feel like this isn’t the job for you. It’s hard work being a teacher; however, it’s a very rewarding job, and you have the opportunity to help so many people. When times are hard, remember all the good you have done for your learners in the past, and will do in the future. Make sure you have someone you can talk to, such as a mentor. Don’t keep things to yourself as any problems or concerns you have might escalate in your own mind. It’s probable that your mentor has also experienced what you are feeling, and can give you some useful advice. Things can and will go wrong, just learn from the experiences, be honest with yourself and remember why you wanted to be a teacher.

If you can be enthusiastic and passionate about your subject, this might motivate and enthuse your learners. If not, they might wonder why they should bother attending if you are not showing interest in the subject or are demonstrating that you are not enjoying your job.

Keller’s (1987) ARCS model of motivation

Keller (1987) combined existing research on psychological motivation and created the ARCS model: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction. Having some knowledge of this model might help you to motivate your learners.

Attention is the first and most important aspect of the ARCS model which is about gaining and maintaining your learners’ attention. Keller’s strategies for attention include:

• stimulating the five senses – ensuring you reach all learners through sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste, although this might not always be possible

• inquiry arousal – using thought-provoking questions and challenges

• variability – using various delivery approaches, activities and media.

Relevance is the second aspect. To ensure motivation is retained, the learner has to believe the session content is relevant to them. It’s about addressing the learner’s question of What’s in it for me? The benefits should clearly be stated to the learner to enable them to see what they will gain.

Confidence is the third aspect. This is to help learners put an effort into their learning and to think they are capable of achieving. Learners should always be given constructive and developmental feedback to help maintain their motivation. Clear targets and deadlines need to be discussed and agreed.

Satisfaction is the final aspect. Learners must obtain some type of satisfaction or reward from their learning experience. This could be in the form of a sense of achievement or of gaining a qualification. Satisfaction could also come from external rewards such as praise from others, a pay rise, more responsibility or a job promotion. Ultimately, the best way for learners to achieve satisfaction is for them to put their new skills and knowledge to immediate use.

Activity

Using the ARCS model of motivation, consider a topic you are going to teach and plan how to gain your learners’ attention for each aspect. How will you make this relevant to each learner, ensuring that they feel confident to learn and are satisfied in some way?

Herzberg’s (1991) hygiene needs and motivation needs

Herzberg (1991) created a two-level theory with hygiene needs and motivation needs.

Hygiene needs (also known as maintenance needs) in Herzberg’s view, do not provide positive motivation, but their absence causes dissatisfaction. This is in the same way that hygiene prevents disease rather than increasing well-being.

Hygiene needs include factors such as salary, interpersonal relationships, working conditions, style of leadership and types of supervision, security, type of work, working hours and status. They are called hygiene needs as they work like preventative medicine. They can help stop an illness but do not do anything to promote good health. In a teaching context this means that hygiene factors don’t motivate learners to do their very best, but they are needed to stop them becoming dissatisfied with their learning experience.

Motivation needs lead to satisfaction. They include factors which allow for: achievement, responsibility, recognition, advancement and challenge. Herzberg suggests that these factors are the ones which encourage people to strive to do well, and motivate them to do their best.

Herzberg believed that hygiene and motivation needs were equally important for satisfaction but that they work in different ways. If the hygiene needs are inadequate, learners will quickly become dissatisfied. However, as these needs are satisfied, trying to motivate them by adding more hygiene needs is an inefficient and short-term solution. A better way would be to appeal to the learners’ motivation needs by giving them more responsibility or giving them greater challenges. In this way, they are satisfied and motivated.

Example

Sharron is progressing well towards a beauty therapy course. When she receives compliments from her teacher for keeping her working area clean and tidy, she feels good. However, she doesn’t expect compliments every day and isn’t demotivated as a result (her hygiene needs are met). The following week Sharron is given the chance to supervise a new learner and enjoys the challenge (meeting her motivation needs).

Maslow’s (1987) Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow (1987) introduced a Hierarchy of Needs in 1954 which can relate to motivation and the ability to achieve something. He rejected the idea that human behaviour was determined by childhood events. He felt that obstacles should be removed that prevent a person from achieving their goals. He argued that there are five needs which represent different levels of motivation which must be met. The highest level was labelled self-actualisation, meaning people are fully functional, possess a healthy personality and take responsibility for themselves and their actions. He also believed that people should be able to move through these needs to the highest level, provided they are given an education that promotes growth. Figure 2.6 shows the needs expressed as they might relate to learning, starting at the base of the pyramid.

Figure 2.6 Maslow’s (1987) Hierarchy of Needs expressed in educational terms

When learners satisfy their needs at one level, they should be able to progress to the next level. Something may set them back a level, but they should want to keep striving upwards. It is these needs that stimulate learning to take place. However, some people may not want to progress through the levels and may be quite content where they are at that moment in their life. There might also be age or cultural factors which could impact upon progression through the levels. You could think of the needs as relevant to your role too. If you are hungry, thirsty, tired or cold as in the first level, you might not perform well.

To help your learners’ motivation, try and ensure that the environment you create meets your learners’ first level needs. This will enable them to feel comfortable and secure enough to learn and progress to the higher levels. You will need to appreciate that some learners may not have these lower needs met in their home lives, making it difficult for them to move on to the higher levels.

Example

Dawn was due to teach a session from 5 p.m. to 7 p.m. She arrived early and noticed the room was hot and stuffy so she opened the windows. She also realised that most of her learners might not have had a chance to eat something prior to the session. When they arrived she told them they would be able to have an early break to enable them to get refreshments. She kept one window open to let some fresh air into the room and allowed her learners to drink bottled water if they wished.

This example shows how Dawn ensured her learners’ first level needs were met, which should then help learning to take place.

While you may be very good at delivering your subject, you might have no control over the environment, and will need to create a suitable learning climate if you can. However, your enthusiasm and passion for your subject should help engage your learners. If you can also make your session interesting, active and varied, your learners will enjoy the experience and remember more about the subject and your delivery, rather than the environment or a lack of facilities.

Extension activity

How can you engage and motivate your learners to progress through each level of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs? What internal and external factors might affect a learner’s motivation? How do you think these factors can be overcome?

Challenges

Throughout your role as a teacher or a trainer you will experience many challenges. These might relate to personal challenges, such as:

• a difference in values and beliefs to that of your employer or your learners

• a disability or a difficulty which might limit access to, or use of, certain areas of a building, resources and/or equipment

• a fear of using new technology

• a lack of money to purchase items which your employer does not supply, e.g. specialist clothing

• family and home commitments

• limited language and numerical skills

• transport issues preventing you from arriving on time.

Others could relate to professional challenges, such as:

• a lack of learner motivation or interest

• a lack of resources and equipment

• a lack of time to adequately plan and prepare sessions

• learner absenteeism

• limited knowledge of the subject you have been asked to teach

• poor learner behaviour

• pressure from managers to achieve targets

• too many meetings to attend

• too much administration work to carry out

• unsupportive colleagues.

You might have colleagues who have experienced the same challenges as yourself and you may find it useful to talk to them. You could find out what support is available within your organisation.

Example

Saira was apprehensive about teaching a group of 25 learners, aged 16–19. She had only taught groups of adults before. Saira approached William, her line manager, for some advice. William had been teaching that age group for many years. He was able to give Saira lots of useful information, particularly relating to behaviour and motivation. Saira was pleased she had approached him. She had thought at first that he would have expected her to have known what to do. However, he proved really helpful and said he would sit in during some of her sessions to give her advice and support if she needed it.

Never think you are on your own; if you are experiencing a challenge, it’s highly likely someone else has too.

Activity

Make a list of personal and professional challenges you feel you might encounter throughout your teaching role. How might you be able to overcome them? Will you need to involve anyone else? If so, who could help you and how will you go about contacting them?

Disruptions

To get through a session without any disruptions would be wonderful, but this very rarely happens. You might have a learner who arrives late, an inquisitive learner who always wants to know more, or just someone asking to leave the room to go to the toilet. Whatever the disruption might be, you need to handle this professionally to minimise any effect it might have on teaching and learning.

Usually, disruptions occur because people don’t follow the ground rules, for example, their mobile phone rings, they decide to eat or drink, or do something other than that which you have asked them to do. If this is the case, politely ask them to stop, remind them of the ground rules and how they are also disrupting their peers’ learning. Other occurrences happen because people are either bored, they don’t understand what you are saying or you are not challenging them enough. Could you give them an alternative activity to stretch their learning further? Ideally, it’s best not to ignore the disruption but address it immediately.

The late arrival learner

A learner might arrive late for many reasons which might not necessarily be deliberate. Depending upon what is happening at the time, they might take their place quietly or draw attention to themselves by apologising in front of everyone. You could welcome them to the session and give them a quick recap of what is happening. Alternatively, you could tell them you will give them an update regarding what they have missed at an appropriate point during the session.

If a learner is repeatedly late, you will need to find out why to see if it can be prevented. If not, the situation will disrupt the attention of everyone in the group and may make others feel that they shouldn’t bother arriving on time either.

The over-enthusiastic learner

Sometimes, a learner can be over-enthusiastic which could have an adverse effect upon the rest of the learners. For example, they interrupt by asking too many questions, they like to tell everyone what they know or they become over-excited or even aggressive. Try not to lose patience with them, you might even find other learners ask them to quieten down before you do. Ways to deal with this situation include:

• moving around the room so that you do not directly face the learner all the time

• holding your hand up in a ‘stop’ sign when they interrupt you, and then asking them to wait until an appropriate time before speaking

• involving other learners, perhaps by saying ‘I appreciate what you are saying; now let’s hear from someone else’

• using group work and activities where they must work with and listen to others.

Extension activity

Make a list of possible disruptions which you might encounter with your learners. Discuss these with a colleague and decide how you could deal with them in an effective way.

Learning preferences and styles

Most people learn in different ways and have a preference or a style to help them acquire new skills and knowledge and to remember things. Some people prefer the term preference to styles so as not to categorise a learner. Adults might have developed a preference or style from childhood learning patterns or their experiences of growing up and of working. What suits one learner might not suit another. For example, if a group of people were learning yoga, some might like to watch and listen to the teacher first. Others might want to practise the movements at the same time as the teacher.

All people learn differently, perhaps influenced by experiences in their childhood, school, personal or professional relationships. When you learn something new, you will probably adapt, change or modify your behaviour as a result, and the same will apply with your learners.

Your own experiences of how you learn might influence what you do with your learners. You might deliver your sessions in the style which suits you, but it might not suit your learners. For example, if you like to learn by listening to others, you might want to talk to your learners for most of your session. However, they might not all remain focused or take in what you say. If you can find out what your learners’ current preferences are, then you can adapt your teaching approaches to suit.

There are critics of learning styles. In 2004, Professor Frank Coffield and three colleagues carried out a systematic and critical review of learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning. The report reviewed the literature on learning styles and examined in detail 13 of the most influential models. The implications for teaching and learning, he states, are serious and should be of concern. Coffield has since written widely on the subject and states ... it was not sufficient to pay attention to individual differences in learners, we must take account of the whole teaching–learning environment. (2008, page 31).

It’s therefore important to consider other factors which influence learning, such as the environment, not just the preference or style of the individual learner.

Questionnaires and inventories

There are many different versions of questionnaires and inventories which are available. These can determine what preference or style of learning is best for each learner. For example, if they prefer to learn by watching a demonstration, listening to a talk, or to carry out practical activities. Your organisation might have one they would like you to use with your learners, or they might not want them used at all. Some are free and some are paid for; however, not all have been seriously researched in educational fields. If you do use them, you might prefer to focus on the weaker findings and empower your learners to adapt information in a way that they are comfortable with, for example, by using a digital voice recorder if they are weaker at listening. They can then listen to the recording many times to help improve their listening skills. If a learner needs to improve their visual skills, they can use the image function of internet search engines to look at pictures and graphics.

Your learners might instinctively know what works best for them rather than having it determined for them. For example, they might prefer practical activities rather than reading or writing. This might have developed from previous courses they have attended. Rather than this being their learning preference, you could think of it as their teaching preference. You could ask your learners which teaching preference they have and then adapt your sessions accordingly.

VARK

In 1987, Fleming stated that people can be grouped into four styles of learning: visual, aural, read/write and kinaesthetic, known by the acronym VARK. Table 2.2 gives some examples of characteristics of VARK learners.

Table 2.2 Example characteristics of VARK

Table 2.3 Examples of meeting VARK learning preferences

However, try not to be quick to place learners in one of the four styles, as they may be multi-modal, i.e. a mixture of two or more styles, enabling their learning to take place more quickly.

Activity

Think about the subject you will teach. What activities could your learners carry out to cover the visual, aural, read/write and kinaesthetic learning preferences? Do you agree with Frank Coffield that the whole teaching and learning environment has an impact rather than just the learning preferences? If so, how and why?

In 1992, Fleming, along with Mills published their findings in a journal. Other publications have since become available which have different views. Styles and preferences of learning can change over time depending upon many factors, such as lifestyles or particular events. Table 2.3 gives some examples of meeting the VARK learning preferences for various topics. However, it’s best to use a mixture of each to ensure variety during your sessions.

Honey and Mumford (1992)

Honey and Mumford suggest learners are a mixture of four styles: activist, pragmatist, theorist and reflector. This could be interpreted as:

Activist

Activist learners like to deal with new challenges and experiences, often learning by trial and error. They like lots of practical activities to keep them busy and they enjoy a hands-on approach. They love challenges and are enthusiastic.

Pragmatist

Pragmatist learners like to apply what they have learnt to practical situations. They like logical reasons for doing something. They prefer someone to demonstrate a skill first before trying it for themselves.

Theorist

Theorist learners like time to take in information, they prefer to research and read lots of material first. They like things that have been tried and tested and prefer reassurance that something will work.

Reflector

Reflector learners think deeply about what they are learning and the activities they could do to apply this learning. They like to be told about things so that they can think it through. They will also try something, think about it, and then try it again.

Example

Matt has just bought a new mobile phone. He is an activist learner and therefore enjoyed learning to use it by tapping the icons and trying out the functions. If he was a pragmatist, he would have asked someone to show him how to use it. If he was a theorist, he would have read the instructions thoroughly before carrying them out. If he was a reflector, he would have used the functions he was familiar with before thinking about different ways of using them, followed by using the phone’s other functions.

It can be useful to ask your learners to complete a learning preference questionnaire. It can be fun and lead to an interesting discussion, as well as helping you plan your approaches to reach all learning preferences. A free online questionnaire is available at www.vark-learn.com.

Retention of learning

Whatever teaching and learning approaches and activities you choose to use with your learners, you will want them to retain what they have learnt. There have been many studies regarding the retention of learning, which are usually expressed in percentages. One is Dale’s (1969) Cone of learning and experience, as in Figure 2.7. This shows in percentages how much people remember what they read, hear, see and do. However, Dale said it was not to be used literally, the bands within the cone are not rigid but flexible, and the cone in Figure 2.7 has been adapted, revised and disagreed with over the years.

Using activities from the top of the cone (passive) through to the bottom of the cone (active) might help your learners to realistically experience your subject. They should then remember more because they have said and done what they have read and heard, i.e. they have put theory into practice.

Figure 2.7 Dale’s Cone of learning and experience (1969, page 108) adapted

If your learners can incorporate reading, hearing, seeing, saying and doing during your sessions, their learning retention should increase. Once learners put theory into practice they should begin to understand what they have learnt. Some people learn by imitating or copying others. While they might then be able to perform the task, they might not know why they are doing it. Therefore, skills and knowledge are best learnt together to ensure understanding takes place.

Extension activity

If you have access to the internet, go to www.vark-learn.com and carry out the online questionnaire. See what your results are for each of V, A, R and K. Do you think your result adequately reflects the way you learn? If not, why not? Research other theories regarding learning preferences and styles. Find out why some people are critics and others favour them, then make up your own mind if you will use them or not. You might also wish to research critics of Dale’s Cone of learning and experience.

Teaching and learning theories, principles and models

There are many teaching and learning theories, principles and models which have been based on ideas, thoughts, experiences and research over many years. Some are quite old, but are trusted; others are fairly recent. This section will briefly explain some of these in (hopefully) an easy to understand way. They are in no particular order, and are often contradictory. For example, whether it’s a philosopher’s, a psychologist’s, a sociologist’s or a neuroscientist’s perspective. You will need to make your own mind up whether you think they will influence what you do. You might even come up with your own theory or idea to challenge existing ones. All learning should lead to a change in behaviour which demonstrates that learning has taken place. There are many more theories besides those listed here, and there are some textbooks and weblinks at the end of this chapter if you wish to research further.

Sensory theory

Laird (1985) stated that learning occurs when the five senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste are stimulated. Laird’s theory suggests that if multi-senses are stimulated, greater learning takes place. You could, therefore, adapt your approaches and resources to enable your learners to use as many of their senses as possible.

The use of sensory stimulation through pictures, videos, sounds, podcasts, objects, smells and other methods can provide learners with a heightened sensory learning experience. This might be more engaging and interactive than a single stimulation.

Example

Max, a curious 18 month old, was playing with a small plastic toy. He looked at it closely, then shook it to see if it made a noise. He followed this by placing it near his nose to see if it smelt. He then put it in in his mouth to see what it tasted like. He didn’t like the taste, so he didn’t put it in his mouth again. A change in behaviour therefore took place in Max, which demonstrated he had learnt something.

Types and conditions of learning

Gagne (1985) identified five types of learned capabilities, which he stated required a different type of instruction. These are:

• intellectual skills

• cognitive strategies

• verbal information

• attitude

• motor skills.

Different internal and external conditions of learning are required for each. For example, for motor skills to be learnt, there must be the opportunity for the learner to practise new skills rather than just observe them. For attitudes, the learner must be able to explore them, perhaps by discussing them.

Gagne believed all teaching and learning sessions should include a sequence of nine events. These should activate the processes needed for effective learning to take place. Each event has a corresponding cognitive process (in brackets) which Gagne stated all teachers should be aware of.

• Gaining attention (reception)

• Informing learners of the objective (expectancy)

• Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)

• Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)

• Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)

• Eliciting performance (responding)

• Providing feedback (reinforcement)

• Assessing performance (retrieval)

• Enhancing retention and transfer (generalisation)

Example

Ellie, a baking and pastry teacher, ensures all nine events take place in her sessions by:

Gaining attention – showing an example of what the learners will achieve by the end of the session, e.g. an iced wedding cake.

Identifying the objective – stating that the learners will be able to ice a wedding cake by the end of the session.

Recalling prior learning – asking the learners if they have ever iced a wedding cake before.

Presenting stimulus – explaining how they will ice the wedding cake and what they will need to use.

Guiding learning – demonstrating how to ice a wedding cake and showing a short video.

Eliciting performance – encouraging the learners to begin icing a wedding cake themselves.

Providing feedback – informing the learners how they are progressing.

Assessing performance – ensuring the learners are correctly icing the wedding cake by observing and asking questions.

Enhancing retention/transfer – summarising the learning, relating it to real-life situations and explaining what will be covered in the next session.

Behaviourism theory

Behaviourism is about people being conditioned to behave in a particular way, rather than using their own thoughts or feelings. Learning is, therefore, measured by a change in behaviour, which is modified by external influences or conditioning. There are many behaviourist theorists, the most well known being Pavlov, Watson and Skinner.

During the 1890s, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov was researching the digestive secretions of dogs in response to being fed. He noticed that his dogs would begin to salivate whenever he entered the room, whether he was bringing them food or not. He then rang a bell each time the dogs were fed. After a while, ringing the bell led the dogs to salivate, even though they were not given any food. This became known as classical conditioning, as the dogs had been conditioned to associate food with the sound of the bell.

John Watson (1928) believed that everything from speech to emotions are patterns of a stimulus and a response. He believed behaviour could be modified through natural stimuli. He is considered the founder of behaviourism which assumed all behaviour is observable, and can be correlated with other observable events. His research showed that people can be conditioned, and learning is a direct result of this conditioning.

Burrhus Skinner (1974) believed that behaviour is a function of its consequences, i.e. learners will repeat the desired behaviour if positive reinforcement is given. The behaviour should not be repeated if negative feedback is given.

Example

Jamie was sawing a piece of wood as part of a carpentry course and hadn’t paid attention to the health and safety regulations. The saw kept slipping and he cut his hand. His teacher administered first aid and then gave him negative feedback. This, along with his experience, ensured he was more careful in future.

Giving immediate feedback, whether positive or negative, should enable your learners to behave in a certain way. Skinner believed the best way to understand behaviour is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning, as opposed to Pavlov’s classical conditioning.

Positive reinforcement or rewards can include verbal feedback such as That’s great, you’ve produced that document without any errors or You’re certainly getting on well with that task through to more tangible rewards such as a certificate at the end of the programme, or a promotion or a pay rise.

Cognitivism theory

Cognitivism is about people constructing their own understanding and knowledge by experiencing something and reflecting on it. Learning is, therefore, an active process of personal interpretation. There are many cognitive theorists, the most well known being Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner.

Jean Piaget (1959) believed that people construct knowledge rather than receive it. He believed that children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge is based. This experience and knowledge is then influenced by their emotional, biological and mental stages of development. Before Piaget’s work, there was a common assumption that children are less competent thinkers than adults. Although Piaget’s studies were concerned with children, they showed that young children and adults also think differently.

According to Piaget, there are four stages of development in children:

• Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years) learning takes place by touching and feeling, and knowing an object exists even if it can’t be seen

• Preoperational (2–7 years) learning continues by thinking about things symbolically, with the ability to arrange objects logically

• Concrete operational (7–11 years) learning takes place by thinking about things rather than trying them out, i.e. the ability to think logically

• Formal operational (11 years and above) learning continues into adulthood by thinking in an abstract way, and by logically testing things out.

The Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1962) believed that the development of language and thought go together. He argued that knowledge and thought are constructed through social interaction which is guided by adults. The origin of reasoning is, therefore, more to do with the ability to communicate with others, than with an interaction with the material world. Unlike Piaget’s belief that children’s development must precede their learning, Vygotsky argued that culture and social learning tends to precede development. He believed that the environment within which children grew up influenced how they thought, and that learning takes place in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), as in Figure 2.8. This is the area between independent problem solving (actual development) and guidance from others (potential development). Effective teaching should take place within this zone, where cognitive growth occurs.

Figure 2.8 Zone of Proximal Development

Jerome Bruner (1960) argued that the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but to facilitate thinking and problem-solving skills. These skills should be transferable to a range of situations. He believed that behaviour modification was a result of discovery learning, rather than being told something. For example, giving the learner the information they need to solve a problem, but not organising it for them. Learners should be active and construct their own knowledge. They should also build on this over time, known as scaffolding.

Example

Bob had a new group of learners taking a psychology course. He wanted to introduce them to various theories but did not want to confuse them. He asked them to research four theories and to write a paragraph about each in a simplified way. Once done, the learners discussed their findings among each other. During the next session, the learners researched two more and compared and contrasted them against the original four. This way, the learners were discovering things for themselves and building upon their knowledge. Bob is, therefore, facilitating what they are doing, rather than teaching them.

Humanism theory

The humanism theory emphasises the value of human beings and places the onus of learning away from the teacher onto the learner. Learning is, therefore, based on a natural curiosity and the desire for personal growth and development. Carl Rogers (1959) and others developed the theory of facilitative learning based on a belief that people have a natural human eagerness to learn and that learning involves changing your own concept of yourself. This theory suggests that learning will take place if the person delivering it acts as a facilitator. The facilitator should establish an atmosphere in which their learners feel comfortable, are able to discuss new ideas and learn by their mistakes, as long as they are not threatened by external factors.

Example

Vicky is due to teach an evening class in digital photography for beginners. The course does not lead to a qualification; therefore, she has planned to deliver what she thinks is relevant, based on the last time she taught it. However, she remembered being told by an observer of her session last term that she should consider the needs of her learners more. Therefore, at the first session, she decided to encourage her learners to tell her what their expectations of the course would be. This will enable her to facilitate her sessions to meet these. It will also ensure her learners feel included, are comfortable to discuss topics and, as a result, learning will take place as it is relevant to their expectations.

Pragmatism theory

Pragmatists consider thought a tool for prediction, problem solving and actions. It’s about dealing with a problem in a sensible way, rather than following fixed ideas.

John Dewey (1938) believed that behaviour modification takes place when the person relates their behaviour to their experiences. He focused on the pragmatic method of inquiry as an ongoing, self-correcting, and social process. He believed problems could be solved through the application of inquiry and experience, rather than being taught.

Activity

Research other pragmatist theorists and compare and contrast them to those of behaviourism, cognitivism and humanism. Do you agree or disagree with any of the theorists? If so, why? You might like to discuss your responses with a colleague or friend.

Pedagogy and andragogy

Malcom Knowles (1975) brought the concept of pedagogy and andragogy to the fore in education. The pedagogical approach places the responsibility for making decisions about the learning process upon the teacher. They may decide to teach the same material in the same order at the same time to all learners. This doesn’t allow any flexibility for a learner who may miss a session or is learning more slowly or quickly than others. Pedagogy often relates to formal teaching methods. However, it is possible to teach in a formal manner, yet still involve the learners throughout a session to help make the learning process more engaging.

If your sessions are mainly pedagogical, try to include your learners by asking individual questions to check their understanding. You could also ask pairs of learners to talk about a topic and then discuss it as a whole group. Your subject should never bore your learners; you will need to inspire them to maintain their motivation and interest. Learners will only be bored if the session is delivered in a boring way.

The andragogical approach places the emphasis on the learner to take responsibility for the learning process. They can then ensure that they are learning in a way that suits them. This approach allows you to adapt your teaching approaches, activities and materials to suit each learner’s progress and development.

The Peter Principle

Peter and Hull (1969) devised the principle that people are promoted to their highest level of competence, after which, further promotion raises them to a level just beyond this and they become incompetent. This theory has been interpreted by different people over time, such as Noel Burch in the 1970s. The Peter Principle levels are as follows.

• Unconscious incompetence – you don’t know how to do something, but don’t know that you don’t know this. To reach the next level, you need to know what it is that you don’t know.

• Conscious incompetence – you know what you want to do, and start to appreciate the gap in your competence. To reach the next level, you need to know how to become competent.

• Conscious competence – you can do what you set out to do, but have to give it a lot of attention. Through repeated practice, you can reach the next level.

• Unconscious competence – you can perform a skill easily without giving it a great deal of thought. Once you achieve unconscious competence, you are at a level which suits your ability at the time.

If you are promoted or try something different, you might return to the first level and become unconsciously incompetent again. This is useful to know, as your learners may reach and stay at one of these levels, or reach the highest level and then return to a lower level due to further progression.

Example

Zoe has just started attending a course to learn how to use spreadsheets. She has previously only used a computer for emails and the internet. She doesn’t yet know how to use a spreadsheet or the functions it can perform – she is at the unconscious incompetence level. After learning how to set up a spreadsheet, she now wants to perform some calculations; she knows she wants to do this but doesn’t know how. This is the conscious incompetence level. Zoe soon learns how to perform calculations and does this at the conscious competence level. She isn’t quite at the unconscious competence level yet, where she can do it without thinking.

Domains of learning

Bloom (1956) stated that learning often goes through five stages, which should lead to a change in behaviour. These stages are:

• attention

• perception

• understanding

• short-/long-term memory

• change in behaviour.

Starting with gaining your learners’ attention, and progressing through the stages should ensure learning takes place, therefore leading to a change in behaviour. The stages relate to your learners’ thinking, emotions and actions which Bloom called domains of learning. These domains are known as cognitive, affective and psycho-motor. Think of cognitive as thinking, affective as emotions, and psycho-motor as actions.

When planning to deliver your subject, you will need to consider which domain you want to reach and how you can progress your learners through the five stages. It’s useful to know this when planning your session’s aim and objectives (covered in Chapter 4).

Extension activity

How will these theories affect the way you teach and assess your subject? Do you agree with them, or do you have your own theory of how learning takes place? Choose two of the theories which you feel are relevant and research them further, and/or use the weblinks at the end of this chapter to find out about others.

Self-assessment checklist

Do I know about the following?

If not, re-read this chapter, or research the texts and websites listed at the end.

□ The different environments in which learning can take place

□ Different room layouts and the impact they can have upon learning

□ How to manage the learning environment

□ Health and safety considerations in the learning environment

□ The age ranges and varieties of learners

□ What motivates learners

□ Different intrinsic and extrinsic motivation factors

□ Theories of motivation

□ The challenges a teacher faces

□ How to deal with disruptions

□ Learning preferences and styles

□ Different teaching and learning theories, principles and models

Summary

This chapter has explored the different factors which contribute to learning.

You should now be able to manage your sessions in a meaningful way, taking into account the different age ranges of learners, and the different locations where learning takes place. You should also know the theories of how learning takes place.

You might like to carry out further research by accessing the books and websites listed at the end of this chapter, particularly if you are working towards a higher level teaching qualification.

This chapter has covered the following topics:

• Teaching and learning environments

• Learner age ranges and modes of attendance

• Motivation

• Challenges

• Learning preferences and styles

• Teaching and learning theories, principles and models

References and further information

Aubrey, K. and Riley, A. (2016) Understanding and Using Educational Theories. London: SAGE.

Bates, B. (2016) Learning Theories Simplified. London: SAGE.

Bloom, B.S. (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals. New York: McKay.

Bruner, J.S. (1960). The Process of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Caviglioli, O. (2004) Thinking Visually: Step-by-step Exercises That Promote Visual, Auditory and Kinaesthetic Learning. Baldock: Pembroke Publishing Ltd.

Coffield, F. et al. (2004) Learning Preferences and Pedagogy in Post-16 Learning: A Systematic and Critical Review. London: Learning and Skills Research Centre.

Coffield, F. (2008) Just Suppose Teaching and Learning Became the First Priority. London: Learning and Skills Network.

Dale, E. (1969) Audio Visual Methods in Teaching (3rd edition). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Dewey, J. (1938) Logic: The Theory of Inquiry. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Dewey, J. (1963) Experience and Education. New York: Collier Books.

Fleming, N. (2005) Teaching and Learning Preferences: VARK Strategies. Honolulu: Honolulu Community College.

Fleming, N. and Mills, C. (1992) Not Another Inventory, Rather a Catalyst for Reflection. To Improve the Academy, 11: 137.

Gagne, R. (1985) The Conditions of Learning (4th edition). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Gould, J. (2012) Learning Theory and Classroom Practice in the Lifelong Learning Sector (2nd edition). London: Learning Matters SAGE.

Herzberg, F. (1991) Herzberg on Motivation. New York: Penton Media Inc.

Honey, P. and Mumford, A. (1992) The Manual of Learning Preferences (3rd edition). Maidenhead: Peter Honey Associates.

Illeris, K. (2010) The Fundamentals of Workplace Learning: Understanding How People Learn in Working Life. Abingdon: Routledge.

Keller, J.M. (1987) Strategies for Stimulating the Motivation to Learn. Performance & Instruction, 26(8): 1–7.

Kidd, W. and Czerniawski, G. (2010) Successful Teaching 14–19. London: SAGE.

Knowles, M. (1975) Self-Directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Knowles, M., Elwood, F.H. and Swanson, A. (2011) The Adult Learner (7th edition). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Laird, D. (1985) Approaches to Training and Development. Harlow: Addison Wesley.

Maslow, A.H. (1987) (edited by Frager, R.) Motivation and Personality (3rd revised edition). New York: Pearson Education Ltd.

Pavlov, I.P. (1927) Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Vertebral Cortex. London: OU Press.

Peart, S. and Atkins, L. (2011) Teaching 14–19 Students in the Lifelong Learning Sector. Exeter: Learning Matters.

Peter, L.J. and Hull, R. (1969) The Peter Principle: Why Things Always go Wrong. New York: William Morrow and Company.

Piaget, J. (1959) The Language and Thought of the Child (Vol. 5). Psychology Press.

Rogers, C. (1959) A Theory of Therapy, Personality and Interpersonal Relationships as Developed in the Client-centered Framework. In S. Koch (ed.), Psychology: A Study of a Science. Vol. 3: Formulations of the Person and the Social Context. New York: McGraw Hill.

Rogers, C. (1994) Freedom to Learn. New York: Prentice Hall.

Rogers, A. and Horrocks, N. (2010) Teaching Adults (4th edition). Maidenhead: Open University Press.

Senior, L. (2016) A Teacher’s Guide to 14–19 Policy and Practice. Abingdon: Routledge.

Skinner, B.F. (1953) Science and Human Behavior. New York: Free Press.

Skinner, B.F. (1974) About Behaviorism. San Francisco, CA: Knopf.

Vygotsky, L.S. (1962) Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Vygotsky, L.S. (1978) Mind and Society: The Development of Higher Mental Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wallace, S. (2017) Motivating Unwilling Learners in Further Education. London: Bloomsbury Education.

Watson, J.B. (1928) The Ways of Behaviourism. New York: Harper & Brothers.

Websites

Dan Williams’s learning theories blog – https://tinyurl.com/n2v89kz

Health and Safety Executive – www.hse.gov.uk

Institute for Apprenticeships – www.gov.uk/government/organisations/institute-for-apprenticeships

Learning preferences questionnaire – www.vark-learn.com

Learning theories – www.learning-theories.com

www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/ and

http://tinyurl.com/mchvmwe

Learning theory graphic – https://tinyurl.com/ofkjp2d

Noel Burch: Stages of competence – http://tinyurl.com/hgf7394

Performing Rights Society – www.prsformusic.com

Peter Honey – www.peterhoney.com

Reading list for behaviour and motivation – www.anngravells.com/reading-lists/behaviour