Читать книгу Birds of New Zealand, Hawaii, Central and West Pacific - Ber Perlo van - Страница 7
ОглавлениеIntroduction
Systematics and Names
In order to apply a uniform systematic approach and set of names that are valid in New Zealand, Hawaii, the USA, Asia, Europe and anywhere else, this book follows James F. Clements The Clements Checklist of the Birds of the World, 6th Edition (Helm, 2007) with regard to systematic status (species or subspecies) and names (scientific and English).
However, the best-known or most widely used common names used by New Zealanders and in Hawaii should not be neglected, if only to make it easier to find the birds of this book in regional publications. Therefore, alternative English names for species, advised by the Ornithological Society of New Zealand (OSNZ) for New Zealand and by the American Ornithological Union (AOU) for Hawaii, are indicated as insertions in the ‘Clements name’, preceded by ‘NZ’ or ‘AOU’ in superscript. For example:
the species indicated by number 20.9 (Plate 20, number 9) in this book is named the ‘INTERMEDIATE (or NZPlumed) EGRET’; the ‘Clements name’ is INTERMEDIATE EGRET, while the ‘OSNZ name’ is PLUMED EGRET;
number 28.1 in this book is named the ‘(NZAustralian) WHITE-EYED DUCK’; the ‘Clements name’ is WHITE-EYED DUCK and the ‘OSNZ name’ is AUSTRALIAN WHITE-EYED DUCK.
In a few cases, well-known alternative names are inserted in the ‘Clements names’, such as:
41.5 SNOWY (or Kentish) PLOVER
There are also many local names for subspecies, mentioned by the OSNZ and in use for those that occur in New Zealand; these names are given in numbered notes following the captions. An example is:
38.5 PURPLE SWAMPHEN44 Porphyrio porphyrio
ssp melanotus NZPukeko;
ssp pelewensis [Palau]
ssp samoensis [Samoa and Fiji]
In this example, the subspecies Pukeko occurs solely and exclusively in New Zealand (with the extra complication that it is treated by the OSNZ as Nominate of SOUTH-WEST PACIFIC SWAMPHEN NZPorphyrio melanotus). In the following example there are four subspecies found in New Zealand:
14.8 LITTLE SHEARWATER19 Puffinus assimilis
Nom. NZNorfolk Island Little Shearwater
ssp kermadecensis NZKermadec Little Shearwater
ssp haurakensis NZNorth Island Little Shearwater
ssp elegans NZSubantarctic Little Shearwater
Of these, elegans can also be seen outside the area covered by this book, but only in NZ it is known as Subantarctic Little Shearwater. (Note: The OSNZ has recently risen the Clements subspecies elegans to independent species NZSUBANTARCTIC LITTLE SHEARWATER Puffinus elegans.)
The French names are those of the Commission Internationale des noms français d’oiseaux (CINFO 1993).
The sequence of families in this book is more or less traditional, but strongly adapted in order to include up to a maximum of nine, rarely ten similar-looking species, sometimes from different families, in one plate.
Format of the Species Accounts
Plates
In general, the plumages depicted on the plates are Br. plumages unless otherwise indicated. Normally, the birds on any given plate are painted to the same scale except flight silhouettes, which are normally shown smaller. If and have different visual features, such as colouring or dimensions of body parts (e.g. tail length), both are illustrated, unless the differences are only small (e.g. a slightly duller colour of the ). Juveniles, immatures and/or first winter plumages are shown when they are often seen in these plumages. N-br plumages are given if the birds visit the area in this plumage; migrants such as waders, which are mainly seen in N-br plumage, are illustrated in this plumage on the plates. If several subspecies of a species occur in the area, and they are distinguishable, these are in many but not all cases illustrated, but not for example, those separable mainly on basis of range.
An effort has been made to show the birds in their typical ‘jizz’; what birders call jizz is a difficult to define combination of size, relative proportions and body carriage of a bird. Part of a bird’s jizz can be, for example, its stance (the angle of its body axis to the horizontal).
Captions
The information for each species is given in this order:
• the English name in bold capitals (with alternative names in standard lower case);
• the French name between square brackets;
• the scientific name in italics;
• length in cm, measured from tip of bill to tip of tail (L) or between the tips of spread wings (W);
• identification notes with emphasis on the main features, or those that are not visible in the plates (e.g. the colour pattern that appears when a bird opens its wings) or those that are most important for separation from similar species. Notes on behaviour are often added when important for identification;
• habitat (the set of environmental factors, preferred by a bird species) preceded by the symbol ; only simple terms are used such as forest, woodland, marsh, plantations, savanna;
• voice, preceded by the symbol where possible a distinction has been made between ‘call’ and ‘song’ as being the basic vocalisations of birds, ‘call’ being any short, probably unrestrainable sound, given by a bird to indicate its presence to himself or other animals, ‘song’ being the modus in which a (sometimes also the ) advertises its possession of a territory or its mood (anger, nervousness, contentment, togetherness).
In the voice, attention is paid to:
• pitch, using a subjective scale ‘very low, low, mid-high, high, very high, very/extremely high, extremely high’, wherein ‘very low’ and ‘extremely high’ indicate vocalisations that are just not quite too high or too low to be audible and ‘mid-high’ for the normal pitch of an average person’s voice, if trying to imitate the vocalisation;
• speed, for which terms are used as ‘very slow, slow, calm, rapid, hurried, fast’;
• tempo, as defined by the ‘length’ between notes, indicated by the use or absence of hyphens between notes, so beep beep beep is slower than beep-beep-beep, while beepbeepbeep is the fastest. Also terms such as rattle and trill are used to describe tempo; an apostrophe as in t’sreee is used to indicate a short, yet noticeable separation between two consonants;
• loudness, described as soft, weak, loud, ringing, etc.;
• structure, indicated by terms such as accelerated, lowered, gliding, crescendo, staccato, etc.;
• length of song or call given in seconds;
• quality in terms such as harsh, shrieking, mewing, etc.;
• transcriptions – this is the most difficult way to describe ‘voice’ for several reasons: different people will transcribe bird vocalisations using different vowels and consonants (for example, compare the way in which in several bird guides the chirping of a house sparrow is transcribed) and the differences that exist between written and spoken text in different languages (French people will transcribe a sound in a different way to a Dutch or English speaker).
To keep transcriptions short, use is made of the punctuation mark ‘-’ to indicate repetition of one or more foregoing notes. In ‘preep -’ the note(s) are repeated 1–3 times, in ‘preep - -’ the repetition is more than three times and in ‘preep—’ the repetition is given very fast.
The use of an acute accent on a vowel, for example in weétjer, means that part is accentuated; the diacritic grave, as in rèh-rèh rèh, is used to indicate that the ‘e’ sounds as the ‘e’ in ‘red’; similarly, ò sounds as the ‘o’ in ‘pot’; parts of transcriptions written in capitals are uttered louder.
The vocalisations in this book might support an identification or may make it easier to remember a bird sound when it is heard again. However, it should be kept in mind that though the vocalisations of many seabirds, herons and other large waders are described, they vocalise only or mainly in, above or near their breeding colonies.
The description of voice in this book is based on tapes, CDs and DVDs (see Bibliography).
Distribution Maps
Information about range, seasonality and occurrence can be an important aid in supporting or weakening an identification. In the distribution maps, attention is paid to these factors, expressed in the key on page 14.
The Area Covered
The area encompasses the following 20 political entities, given in random sequence:
• Hawaii (US State)
• Fiji (Republic)
• Tonga (Kingdom)
• Nauru (Republic)
• Samoa (Republic)
• American Samoas (US unincorporated Territory)
• Kiribati (Republic)
• Marshall Islands (Republic)
• Federated States of Micronesia (free association with the USA)
• Tuvalu (British Commonwealth)
• Tokelau (New Zealand Territory)
• Niue (free association with New Zealand)
• Cook Islands (free association with New Zealand)
• Guam (US unincorporated Territory)
• Wallis and Futuna (French Overseas Collectivity)
• Pitcairn Islands (UK Overseas Territory)
• Northern Marianas (Commonwealth in union with USA)
• Palau (Republic)
• French Polynesia (French Overseas Territory)
• New Zealand (British Commonwealth)
The Environment
Some Basics for Oceania
The following paragraphs give a short introduction to the factors that determine the presence and distribution of bird species in the area. The main factor that dominates all others is that the area is composed of islands, varying between very large and very small, lying either far apart from or close to each other. All these islands have been uplifted from the ocean bottom by tectonic activity; those in the tropics are modified by reef building. Almost all islands, except the most southern ones, were once covered by forest. The final stage in the formation of habitats was the way in which people transformed and used the environment.
TECTONICS The outer mantle of the earth is formed by solid rock (the lithosphere), covered by an accumulation of sediments, volcanic products and changed basic rock (the crust). The lithosphere overlays the asthenosphere, a mantle of plastic flowing rock.
The lithosphere is horizontally subdivided into seven or eight major plates and many minor plates, which ride on the asthenosphere. Some of these plates and parts of them are denser and heavier, lay lower and form the floor of the oceans. The plates move in relation to each other:
• at spreading (divergent) boundaries (A1);
• at collision (convergent) boundaries (A2); and
• at transform boundaries (A6), where two plates move in opposite directions.
The area covered by this book is dominated by a convergent border between the oceanic Pacific Plate and the continental Australian and Filipino Plates (see map ‘PLATE TECTONICS’).
Tectonic plates separate (or diverge) from each other along a 80,000km long, mainly mid-ocean network (A1) that encompasses the earth. Nearest to the area is a network segment along the west coasts of North and South America. A typical spreading (or divergent) zone (C) can be described as a pair of parallel ridges on both sides of a rift. The rift bottom fills itself with upwelling, red-hot magma, which drives the plates apart and forms new ocean floor.
Collision boundaries are zones of subduction, where heavier oceanic plates dive under lighter continental plates as shown in A2 and D. These zones are marked by a deep trench (D3). When the crust, together with lithospheric material, sinks into the asthenosphere it is heated to such a high temperature that magma chambers (D4) are formed, which float to the surface forming rows of volcanoes (D5) arranged in island arcs (the Kermadecs and Northern Marianas are typical island arcs). These arcs form a sort of perforation, along which the edge of the overlaying plate is often torn off and dragged under itself on the back of the submerging plate.
Other types of conflicting boundaries are also possible (A6), for example, where plates or plate fragments rub along each other under a sharp corner.
The speed of spreading is unevenly dispersed along the mid-ocean ridge system. Tensions are solved by many fissures (A7) perpendicular to the rift. The rift segments (B8) shift in relation to each other; the parts of fissures between rift segments are called transform faults. The movement at their sides is in opposite directions, which may cause volcanic activity. The outer parts of the fissures are called fracture zones; these separate areas moving in the same direction, which causes no or only low volcanic activity.
Here and there, far from the edges, magma penetrates through the ocean plate. These places are known as hotspots (E); hot magma wells up via these holes giving birth to volcanic islands at the surface. Because the ocean plate moves in a north-westerly direction the hot spots keep drilling holes, forming chains of islands, the youngest being the most eastern one. The Hawaiian islands are a good example.
The map ‘PLATE TECTONICS’ also shows a transform fault (green line on map), running from the Nazca Plate (near South America) via the Pitcairns to the Line Islands, which could have produced the many islands of the Pitcairn, Tuamotu and Line Islands. However, their origin could also have been a hot spot near Easter Island.
REEF BUILDING There are many species of coral organisms. The group that can build a reef is only found:
• in clear salt waters;
• at depths shallower than 50m (beneath this depths the coral skeletons change to coral limestone, darker yellow-green in figures);
• with an optimum temperature of 26–27°C; and
• strong currents and/or heavy agitation (otherwise food particles are unable to reach the tentacles of the polyps).
Most if not all tropical Pacific islands have a volcanic origin. Reef building starts as soon as a new volcano has emerged (A) and coral larvae have been carried in by ocean currents.
The first stage is a fringing reef (B) at a short distance from land and normally en-compassing a shallow lagoon. It takes about 10,000 years from stage A to reach stage B.
In the course of time the volcano erodes or the local ocean bottom subsides. If coral growth can keep up with the speed of this process, a barrier reef (C) is formed on the base of coral limestone; note the wider, locally deeper lagoon.
Ultimately, all land will be eroded, and the barrier reef will become an atoll (D) en-closing an open lagoon. The process from A to D can take 30 million years.
It is possible that an atoll can be uplifted by movements in the earth’s crust, by which an uplifted coral island is formed. A limestone rock emerges (E) and becomes encircled by a fringing reef.
LAND USE AND VEGETATION TYPES Once most islands were mainly covered by forest. The arrival of man brought about many changes in this environment and the following are the main present-day habitats.
Ocean
Open Tropical Ocean: warm water contains less prey (fish, squid, etc.) than cold water, therefore most seabirds in the tropical ocean are more numerous at places where deep cold currents from higher latitudes well up above (under) sea mounts (submerged volcanoes) and at the western edges of the Pacific.
Temperate Ocean: water temperatures between 10 and 18°C, found between the tropics and 48°S and N. Rich in oxygen and nutrients, very rich in fish (less species than in tropical seas, but often in large shoals) and in other life forms.
Coastal habitats
Lagoon: shallow, clear water rich in food for terns, gulls, noddies, tropicbirds and frigatebirds.
Seashore: especially important for migrating shorebirds.
Mangrove: mangrove stands support many bird species and form a habitat where heronries are often found.
Littoral Forest: the forests and thickets bordering the beach.
Lowland forest types
Lowland Dry Forest: found at the dry north-western side of high mountain chains, where the rain, brought in by the eastern trade winds, is released on the eastern slopes. All forms of dry forest are almost completely transformed to agricultural use. In the mixed exotic/native remains a few of the original endemic bird species may be found, plus many alien species.
Lowland Rainforest: as highland rainforest but with a more diverse range of tree species, denser undergrowth and many tree ferns.
Agricultural habitats
Coconut/Breadfruit Forest: found in the coastal areas of many Pacific islands. Mixed with species such as guavas, mango and Ficus. This is an ancient man-made habitat.
Farmland: food crops, fruit orchards, floriculture, vanilla, etc.
Savanna: low production grassland with some tree cover, many breadfruit shrubs and dominated by exotic grasses. Often replaces (dry) forest after repeated burning.
Grassland: areas dominated by grasses with little tree and shrub cover, also replacing former forest. Savanna and grassland in Pacific islands are normally the result of human activity.
Wetlands
Wetlands: rare freshwater habitat in the Pacific; most original wetland is drained and changed to crop- and grassland. Wetland bird species are now dependent on man-made ponds, reservoirs, sewage fields, etc.
Upland forest types
Production Forest: mainly Caribbean Pine or Eucalyptus plantations.
Upland Dry Forest: once covered about one-third of the lar-ger Fijian islands and also was common at the leeside of the Hawaiian islands; now greatly altered to savanna with sparse vegetation.
Montane Rainforest: various forest types united by high humidity and limited temperature variations. Exact timing of dry season varies. Characterised by epiphytes and mosses. This habitat has often disappeared from the smaller islands and the remains on larger islands are threatened.
Cloud Forest: the highest parts of rainforest, which are characterised by a high incidence of fog.
Secondary Forest: new natural forest where the original forest has disappeared. As a habitat it is highly variable, from low woodland to tall forest with more open canopy than virgin forests and lacking old emergent trees.
Other habitat types
Lava Plains and other bare ground at high altitudes: for some bird species this forms an important habitat (Hawaii Goose, Omao, Tahiti Petrel, White-tailed Tropicbird).
Some Basics for New Zealand
GEOLOGY The core of New Zealand was pushed, compressed and folded up against the Australian area some 370 million years ago. About 300 million years later (or 70 million years ago) New Zealand and Australia were separated along a rift that created the Tasman Sea. The rift ‘healed’ and 25 million years ago the eroded and flattened remains started to be uplifted again.
South Island is dominated by a row of Alps over the full western length. The subduction processes in the trenches north and south of South Island are contrary to each other, pressing the alpine area together. Along the main Alpine Fault both ‘Alp-halves’ are sliding along each other (the western ‘half’ moving faster north). Secondary faults are forming the highlands near Kaikoura. This is also the place where the deep Kermadec Trench brings cold, fish-rich water near the coast, attracting a host of seabirds.
North Island is dominated by volcanic activity. The Pacific Plate dives under the Australian Plate that carries the island. Where the plate sinks into the liquid-hot asthenosphere, magma is released and ‘floats’ to the surface forming an arc of volcanoes in the Taupo Volcanic Zone. In this zone and elsewhere there are several lakes in places where once large to very large magma chambers exploded (each one forming a ‘caldera’), after which the remains collapsed and were filled by rain water. It is also the zone where many hot springs are found; the water that surfaces here (often as steam) is heated deeper down in the earth’s crust. The volcanoes and calderas outside the Taupo Volcanic zone are mainly remnants of older volcanic arcs.
LAND USE AND VEGETATION TYPES Originally the greater part of New Zealand was covered by forest. After the arrival of the Polynesians (ad1000) and later on the settlement of the Europeans (from about ad1840) more than 50% of the forest was cleared, mainly by fire and grazing. Origin-ally there were no mammals in New Zealand except seals and three bat species, but when the first people arrived they introduced unwillingly or with full intent a wide range of animals, which started to compete with or to live on the native flora and fauna, driving many endemics to complete or near-extinction. The most dangerous intruders were black rats, mice, feral cats and possums. The latter not only eat eggs and nestlings of indigenous species but also the saplings and fresh shoots of indigenous trees and plants. The best places to see remaining endemics are a few islands and a single mainland sanctuary that have been made predator-free.
Before the arrival of the Europeans there were very few deciduous tree species, the 13m-high Tree Fuchsia (Fuchsia excorticata) among them.
The main habitats include the following:
Farmland, orchards, high producing grassland: together covering about 24% of the total land area.
Extensive grasslands: low vegetation, mainly with exotic and indigenous grasses. Livestock tend to be grazed over large areas. Some extensive grassland may have conservation or recreational uses.
Mosaic of different types of forest and farmland: among these is coastal forest, which is not very tall and is made up of plants that can tolerate salty winds. It generally lacks large conifers and has fewer vines and epiphytes. The canopy is dense and wind-shorn.
Lowland forest: resembles tropical rainforest, but is less rich in species. Found mainly in the northern half of North Island. A typical species is Kauri, a gigantic conifer with small oval leaves. Further south other tall species such as Southern Beech dominate. In most places all or most tall trees have been felled.
Upland forest: dominated by Southern Beech. Undergrowth less dense than in lowland forest. Before the introduction of possum, deer and goat, was rich in berry-producing shrubs.
Planted forest: mainly pine species, but also eucalyptus. Often with rich undergrowth of native plants. Covers about 7% of total land area.
Lakes: the lakes of South Island are drowned glacier valleys, those of North Island are mainly water-filled calderas (collapsed magma chambers).
Note: most natural inland wetlands of New Zealand have been drained for agriculture.
The Birds
Island Avifauna
The area covered by this book is characterised by its immense water surface, its countless small islands and the often enormous distances between them. This makes the avifauna typically island in character.
Of the 125, worldwide recognised true seabirds (albatross and petrels), 87 (or 70%) occur in the area.
As a result of the islands never having been connected to other land masses, the birds that are present have arrived on their own wings or with sea currents, by evolution or by human introduction (Polynesians and Europeans). About 70 species (9%) have been introduced, at least 201 species (25%) are endemic, so about 510 species came unsupported from elsewhere.
Before the arrival of humans there were no mammals in the area, except seals, bats and fruit-bats. There were not many birds of prey either. Many bird species could therefore afford to lose the ability to fly; 12 flightless species (excluding penguins) can still be found, namely five kiwis (all species), three rails (Weka, Takaha and Henderson Island Crake), three ducks (Auckland Duck, Auckland Teal and Campbell Teal) and one parrot (Kakapo).
The arrival of man with his domesticated animals and stowaways, such as black rats and the wilful introduction of predators such as weasels and stoats (as means to control other introduced animals such as rabbits), meant the extinction of many species. Fairly recently it appeared that avian diseases spread by mosquitoes have been responsible for the extinction and near-extinction of several species on the Hawaiian Islands (e.g. the Hawaiian Crow). In the mid 1960s the Brown Tree Snake sneaked into Guam. Without the natural predators of the snake or adequate defence by the autochthonic birds the Guam Flycatcher was extirpated and the Guam Rail could only survive in captivity.
An appendix to this book presents a list of 59 species that have become extinct since 1800.
The islands’ isolation has also had these effects:
• many species are fearless and docile. Indigenous birds in New Zealand, for instance, are often easily approachable;
• the genus Acrocephalus spread over many islands and split up in 12 endemic species; these differ mainly in the degree of leucism. The Tahiti species occurs also as a rare melanistic morph;
• islands tend to produce dwarf (none in the area) or giant species. The giants are extinct (unless one wants to consider Takahe, the world’s largest rail and Kakapo, the world’s heaviest parrot, as such). Extinct are the ten ostrich-like, forest dwelling Mao species in New Zealand (the largest reached a length of 2.7m). They were preyed upon by the likewise extinct Haast’s Eagle, which, with a length of 1.7m, was the largest raptor that lived in historical times. Other giants – likewise extinct – were Moa-nalos (giant ducks from Hawaii), Vitilevu Giant Pigeon and Eyles’s Harrier from New Zealand;
• a large amount of endemics. An endemic is a species that occurs only in an area with well-defined boundaries, such as a continent, a country, an island or a habitat. In this book 201 species are mentioned as endemic; only those, occurring with their full life-cycle solely in one of the 20 countries of the area, are treated as endemics, but does not include those restricted to, for example, a group of countries or the whole area. Subspecies are incidentally mentioned as endemic in the captions.
The Endemic Species of the Area
The following pages show maps and the endemics as thumbnails (not depicted to relative scale), arranged per country. The numbers preceding the species refer to the plates and numbers of the species on the plates, while the numbers at the end of the entries refer to the islands on the maps of the countries where the species occur.
Hawaii Endemics
304 species, including the following 33 endemics:
11.6 Hawaiian Petrel Breeds Ha 1,2,4,?5,?7
Pterodroma sandwichensis
24.6 Hawaiian Goose Ha 1,2,5,7
Branta sandvicensis
27.2 Hawaiian Duck Ha 1,2,6,7,8
Anas wyvilliana
27.4 Laysan Duck Ha 13,17
Anas laysanensis
32.6 Hawaiian Hawk Ha 1
Buteo solitarius
38.7 Hawaiian Coot Ha 1–7
Fulica alai
74.1 Omao Ha 1
Myadestes obscurus
74.2 Kamao ?Ha 7
Myadestes myadestinus
74.3 Puaiohi Ha 7
Myadestes palmeri
74.4 Olomao Ha ?5 (no records since 1980)
Myadestes lanaiensis
75.8 Millerbird Ha 8
Acrocephalus familiaris
78.8 Elepaio Ha 1,6,7
Chasiempis sandwichensis
87.1 Maui Parrotbill Ha 2
Pseudonestor xanthophrys
87.2 Akikiki Ha 7
Oreomystis bairdi
87.3 Hawaii Creeper Ha 1
Oreomystis mana
87.4 Maui Alauahio Ha 2
Paroreomyza montana
87.5 Akepa Ha 1,?2
Loxops coccineus
87.6 Akekee Ha 7
Loxops caeruleirostris
87.7 Iiwi Ha 1,2,5,?6,?7
Vestiaria coccinea
87.8 Akohekohe Ha 2,?5
Palmeria dolei
87.9 Apapane Ha 1,2,4–7
Himatione sanguinea
87.10 Poo-Uli Ha ?2
Melamprosops phaeosoma
88.1 Laysan Finch Ha 13,16
Telespiza cantans
88.2 Nihoa Finch Ha 8
Telespiza ultima
88.3 Ou Ha 1
Psittirostra psittacea
88.4 Palila Ha 1
Loxioides bailleui
88.5 Nukupuu Ha (extinct?)
Hemignathus lucidus
88.6 Akiapolaau Ha 1
Hemignathus munroi
88.7 Anianiau Ha 7
Magumma parva
88.8 Oahu Amakihi Ha 6
Hemignathus flavus
88.9 Hawaii Amakihi Ha 1,2,5
Hemignathus virens
88.10 Kauai Amakihi Ha 7
Hemignathus kauaiensis
95.7 Hawaiian Crow Ha 1
Corvus hawaiiensis
Fiji Endemics
149 species, incl the following 28 endemics:
9.2 Fiji Petrel Fi 10
Pterodroma macgillivrayi
31.6 Fiji Goshawk Fi thr., excl. 7
Accipiter rufitorques
58.6 Peale’s Imperial-Pigeon Fi all main Is.
Ducula latrans
60.3 Golden Dove Fi 1,9–11,14
Ptilinopus luteovirens
60.4 Orange Dove Fi 2,4,8,16,18,22
Ptilinopus victor
60.5 Velvet Dove Fi 3,15
Ptilinopus layardi
61.2 Crimson Shining-Parrot Fi 1,3,15
Prosopeia splendens
61.3 Red Shining-Parrot Fi 2,4,10,16–18
Prosopeia tabuensis
61.4 Masked Shining-Parrot Fi 1
Prosopeia personata
62.1 Collared Lory Fi thr., excl. S 7
Phigys solitarius
62.3 Red-Throated Lorikeet Fi 1,2,4,11
Charmosyna amabilis
74.8 Long-Legged Warbler Fi 1,2
Trichocichla rufa
75.3 Fiji Bush-Warbler Fi 1–4
Cettia ruficapilla
77.9 Black-Throated Shrikebill Fi 1–4,11
Clytorhynchus nigrogularis
78.6 Ogea Monarch Fi 23,24
Mayrornis versicolor
78.7 Slaty Monarch Fi thr.
Mayrornis lessoni
79.5 Vanikoro Flycatcher Fi thr.
Myiagra vanikorensis
79.7 Blue-Crested Flycatcher Fi 1,2,4
Myiagra azureocapilla
80.5 Kandavu Fantail Fi 3,15
Rhipidura personata
80.9 Silktail Fi 2,4
Lamprolia victoriae
81.6 Fiji Woodswallow Fi 1,2,4,6,11,16
Artamus mentalis
83.2 Layard’s White-Eye Fi 1–4,11
Zosterops explorator
86.3 Rotuma Myzomela Fi 21
Myzomela chermesina
86.4 Orange-Breasted Myzomela
Myzomela jugularis Fi thr., excl. 21
86.6 Kandavu Honeyeater Fi 3
Xanthotis provocator
86.9 Giant Honeyeater Fi 1,2,4
Gymnomyza viridis
91.7 Pink-Billed Parrotfinch Fi 1
Erythrura kleinschmidti
91.8 Fiji Parrotfinch Fi 1–4,6,28
Erythrura pealii
Tonga Endemics
73 species, including the following 2 endemics:
34.3 Niuafo’ou Scrubfowl Ton 7
Megapodius pritchardii
84.4 Tongan Whistler Ton
Pachycephala jacquinoti
Nauru Endemics
27 species, including the following endemic:
76.9 Nauru Reed Warbler Na
Acrocephalus resei
Samoa Endemics
82 species, including the following 8 endemics:
57.2 Tooth-Billed Pigeon Sa
Didunculus strigirostris
67.5 Flat-Billed Kingfisher Sa
Todiramphus recurvirostris
72.3 Samoan Triller Sa
Lalage sharpei
79.6 Samoan Flycatcher Sa
Myiagra albiventris
80.6 Samoan Fantail Sa
Rhipidura nebulosa
83.1 Samoan White-Eye Sa 1
Zosterops samoensis
84.6 Samoan Whistler Sa
Pachycephala flavifrons
86.8 Mao Sa
Gymnomyza samoensis
American Samoa
66 species, no endemics.
Kiribati Endemics
74 species, including the following endemic:
76.3 Christmas Island Warbler Ki 4,5,13
Acrocephalus aequinoctialis
Marshall Islands
83 species, no endemics.
Micronesia Endemics
223 species, including the following 15 endemics:
57.4 Caroline Islands Ground-Dove Mi 2,3
Gallicolumba kubaryi
62.2 Pohnpei Lorikeet Mi 2
Trichoglossus rubiginosus
68.5 Caroline Islands Swiftlet Mi 1,2,3,?4
Aerodramus inquietus
75.9 Caroline Reed-Warbler Mi 2–4
Acrocephalus syrinx
79.1 Pohnpei Flycatcher Mi 2
Myiagra pluto
79.2 Oceanic Flycatcher Mi 3
Myiagra oceanica
80.2 Pohnpei Fantail Mi 2
Rhipidura kubaryi
81.1 Truk Monarch Mi 3
Metabolus rugensis
81.3 Yap Monarch Mi 4
Monarcha godeffroyi
82.7 Yap White-Eye Mi 4
Zosterops oleagineus
82.8 Truk White-Eye Mi 3
Rukia ruki
82.9 Long-Billed White-Eye Mi 2
Rukia longirostra
83.6 Plain White-Eye Mi 4
Zosterops hypolais
83.8 Grey White-Eye Mi 1,2
Zosterops cinereus
94.5 Pohnpei Starling Mi 2
Aplonis pelzelni
Tuvalu
34 species, no endemics.
Tokelau
29 species, no endemics.
Niue
31 species, no endemics.
Cook Islands Endemics
50 species, including the following 6 endemics:
59.2 Cook Islands Fruit-Dove Co 1,3
Ptilinopus rarotongensis
67.2 Mangaia Kingfisher Co 2
Todiramphus ruficollaris
68.4 Atiu Swiftlet Co 3
Aerodramus sawtelli
76.5 Cook Islands Reed-Warbler Co 2,9
Acrocephalus kerearako
78.1 Rarotonga Monarch Co 1,3
Pomarea dimidiata
94.2 Rarotonga Starling Co 1
Aplonis cinerascens
Guam Endemic
93 species, including the following endemic:
36.6 Guam Rail Gu, NMa 4(I)
Gallirallus owstoni
Wallis and Futuna
39 species, no endemics.
Pitcairn Islands Endemics
43 species, including the following 5 endemics:
37.4 Henderson Island Crake Pi 1
Porzana atra
59.8 Henderson Island Fruit-Dove Pi 1
Ptilinopus insularis
62.6 Stephen’s Lorikeet Pi 1
Vini stepheni
76.6 Pitcairn Reed-Warbler Pi 2
Acrocephalus vaughani
76.8 Henderson Island Reed-Warbler Pi 2
Acrocephalus taiti
Northern Marianas Endemics
109 species, including the following 2 endemics:
81.4 Tinian Monarch NMa 2
Monarcha takatsukasae
84.2 Golden White-Eye NMa 1,3
Cleptornis marchei
Palau Endemics
152 species, including the following 10 endemics:
57.9 Palau Ground-Dove Pa 3–6
Gallicolumba canifrons
60.1 Palau Fruit-Dove Pa
Ptilinopus pelewensis
68.7 Palau Swiftlet Pa
Aerodramus pelewensis
69.8 Palau Owl Pa
Pyrroglaux podarginus
75.1 Palau Bush-Warbler Pa
Cettia annae
79.3 Palau Flycatcher Pa 1–5
Myiagra erythrops
80.1 Palau Fantail Pa 1–5
Rhipidura lepida
84.1 Giant White-Eye Pa 3,5
Megazosterops palauensis
84.3 Dusky White-Eye Pa 1–5
Zosterops finschii
85.5 Morningbird Pa 1–5
Colluricincla tenebrosa
French Polynesia Endemics
121 species, including the following 24 endemics:
45.8 Tuamotu Sandpiper FrPo 2
Prosobonia cancellata
57.5 Polynesian Ground-Dove FrPo 5–8
Gallicolumba erythroptera
57.8 Marquesas Ground-Dove FrPo 9 Gallicolumba rubescens
58.4 Polynesian Imperial-Pigeon FrPo 4,11
Ducula aurorae
58.5 Marquesas Imperial-Pigeon FrPo 12,13
Ducula galeata
59.3 Grey-Green Fruit-Dove FrPo 4,14–19
Ptilinopus purpuratus
59.4 Makatea Fruit-Dove FrPo 11
Ptilinopus chalcurus
59.5 Atoll Fruit-Dove FrPo 2, excl.11
Ptilinopus coralensis
59.6 Rapa Fruit-Dove FrPo 29 (Rapa)
Ptilinopus huttoni
59.7 White-Capped Fruit-Dove FrPo 12,13,20,23,25,26
Ptilinopus dupetithouarsii
62.8 Ultramarine Lorikeet FrPo 12,13,23
Vini ultramarina
67.7 Tahiti Kingfisher FrPo 4,19
Todiramphus veneratus
67.8 Tuamotu Kingfisher FrPo 30
Todiramphus gambieri
67.9 Marquesas Kingfisher FrPo 25,?20,?26
Todiramphus godeffroyi
68.2 Polynesian Swiftlet FrPo 4,19
Aerodramus leucophaeus
68.3 Marquesan Swiftlet FrPo 12,13,23,25,26,28
Aerodramus ocistus
76.1 Tahiti Reed-Warbler FrPo 4,15,19
Acrocephalus caffer
76.2 Marquesan Reed-Warbler FrPo 3
Acrocephalus mendanae
76.4 Tuamotu Reed-Warbler FrPo 2
Acrocephalus atyphus
76.7 Rimatara Reed-Warbler FrPo 27
Acrocephalus rimatarae
78.2 Tahiti Monarch FrPo 4
Pomarea nigra
78.3 Marquesas Monarch FrPo 28
Pomarea mendozae
78.4 Iphis Monarch FrPo 13
Pomarea iphis
78.5 Fatuhiva Monarch FrPo 26
Pomarea whitneyi
New Zealand Endemics
337 species, including the following 65 endemics:
1.6 New Zealand Grebe NZ
Poliocephalus rufopectus
2.1 North Island Brown Kiwi NZ 1
Apteryx mantelli
2.2 Okarito Brown Kiwi NZ 2
Apteryx rowi
2.3 Southern Brown Kiwi NZ 2,3
Apteryx australis
2.4 Little Spotted Kiwi NZ 1,?2
Apteryx owenii
2.5 Great Spotted Kiwi NZ 2
Apteryx haastii
3.7 Yellow-Eyed Penguin NZ 1–3
Megadyptes antipodes
15.2 New Zealand Storm-Petrel NZ
Oceanites maorianus
Breeding location unknown.
19.1 Spotted Shag NZ 1–3,5
Phalacrocorax punctatus
19.2 Bronze Shag NZ 2,3
Phalacrocorax chalconotus
19.3 Rough-Faced Shag NZ 2
Phalacrocorax carunculatus
19.4 Chatham Islands Shag NZ 4
Phalacrocorax onslowi
19.5 Campbell Islands Shag NZ 7,8
Phalacrocorax campbelli
19.6 Bounty Islands Shag NZ 5,9
Phalacrocorax ranfurlyi
19.7 Auckland Islands Shag NZ 5,6
Phalacrocorax colensoi
19.9 Pitt Island Shag NZ 4
Phalacrocorax featherstoni
23.5 Paradise Shelduck NZ 1,2,4,10
Tadorna variegata
25.1 Blue Duck NZ 1,2
Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos
25.7 Brown Teal NZ 1,2
Anas chlorotis
25.8 Auckland Islands Teal NZ 6
Anas aucklandica
25.9 Campbell Islands Teal NZ 7,12
Anas nesiotis
28.2 New Zealand Scaup NZ 1,2
Aythya novaeseelandiae
33.5 New Zealand Falcon NZ 1–3,6,7
Falco novaeseelandiae
36.8 Weka NZ 1–4
Gallirallus australis
36.9 Auckland Islands Rail NZ 6
Lewinia muelleri
38.6 Takahe NZ 1,2
Porphyrio mantelli
39.1 Variable Oystercatcher NZ 1–3
Haematopus uni colour
39.3 Chatham Oystercatcher NZ 1
Haematopus chathamensis
39.4 South Island Oystercatcher NZ 1,2,4,5,10
Haematopus finschi
39.8 Black Stilt NZ 1,2
Himantopus novaezelandiae
40.2 Shore Plover NZ 1,2,4
Thinornis novaeseelandiae
40.3 Wrybill NZ 1,2,4
Anarhynchus frontalis
42.5 Red-Breasted Dotterel NZ 1–3
Charadrius obscurus
46.2 Subantarctic Snipe NZ 6–8
Coenocorypha aucklandica
46.3 Chatham Islands Snipe NZ 4
Coenocorypha pusilla
51.3 Red-Billed Gull NZ 1–7
Chroicocephalus scopulinus
51.5 Black-Billed Gull NZ 1–3
Chroicocephalus bulleri
55.4 Black-Fronted Tern NZ 1–3,5
Chlidonias albostriatus
58.1 New Zealand Pigeon NZ 1–3
Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae
63.6 Kea NZ 1,2
Nestor notabilis
63.7 New Zealand Kaka NZ 1–3
Nestor meridionalis
63.8 Kakapo NZ ?1,?2,?3
Strigops habroptila
64.1 Antipodes Parakeet NZ 8
Cyanoramphus unicolor
64.2 Yellow-Fronted Parakeet NZ 1–3,?5
Cyanoramphus auriceps
64.3 Red-Fronted Parakeet NZ 1–6,10
Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae
64.4 Chatham Islands Parakeet NZ 4
Cyanoramphus forbesi
64.5 Malherbe’s Parakeet NZ 2
Cyanoramphus malherbi
71.1 Rifleman NZ 1–3
Acanthisitta chloris
71.2 South Island Wren NZ 2
Xenicus gilviventris
74.9 Fernbird NZ 1–3
Megalurus punctatus
77.1 Grey Gerygone NZ 1–3,5
Gerygone igata
77.2 Chatham Island Gerygone NZ 4
Gerygone albofrontata
77.3 Yellowhead NZ 2
Mohoua ochrocephala
77.4 Whitehead NZ 1
Mohoua albicilla
77.5 Pipipi NZ 2,3
Mohoua novaeseelandiae
80.7 New Zealand Fantail NZ 1–5
Rhipidura fuliginosa
85.1 Tomtit NZ 1–6
Petroica macrocephala
85.3 Chatham Robin NZ 4
Petroica traversi
85.4 New Zealand Robin NZ 2,3
Petroica australis
85.5 North Island Robin NZ 1
Petroica longipes
85.7 Stitchbird NZ 1,11,12
Notiomystis cincta
85.8 New Zealand Bellbird NZ 1–3,6,7
Anthornis melanura
86.1 Tui NZ 1–6,10
Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae
95.4 Kokako NZ 1,?2,?3
Callaeas cinereus
95.5 Saddleback NZ small Is off mainland
Philesturnus carunculatus
The largest number of endemic species is found in New Zealand (65), followed by Hawaii (33), Fiji (28) and French Polynesia (24). New Zealand and Hawaii also have completely endemic families, in New Zealand the kiwis (Apterygidae, five species), the New Zealand Wrens (Acanthissittidae, two species) and the Wattlebirds (Callaeidae, two species) and in Hawaii the family of Hawaiian Creepers (Drepanididae, 20 species). All members of the Hawaiian Creepers’ family relate back to a finch-like bird, which arrived in Hawaii a long time ago and who’s offspring diversified into a large number of species, of which only these 20 remain today. Other bird groups that are represented by many endemics in the area are:
• Rails and Crakes (family Rallidae); in total 135 species worldwide, of which 21 are found in the area, including six endemics;
• Ground-Doves (genus Gallicolumba); in total 16 species in Philippines, Indonesia and Polynesia, of which six are found in the area, including four endemics;
• Fruit-Doves (genus Ptilinopus); in total 51 species in Melanesia, Philippines and Polynesia, of which 15 are found in the area, including 11 endemics;
• Reed-Warblers (genus Acrocephalus); in total 37 species worldwide, of which 15 are found in the area, including ten endemics;
• Monarch Flycatchers (family Monarchidae); in total 100 species in the tropics, of which 21 are found in the area, including 15 endemics;
• White-eyes (family Zosteropidae); in total 96 species in the tropics and subtropics, of which 14 are found in the area, including ten endemics.
The large family of the Parrots Psittacidae (worldwide 347 species) is represented by only 28 species, relatively a small amount, of which 16 are endemic and ten are introduced.
Except the ‘true’ endemics there are also several breeding endemics, especially seabirds who visit countries in the area only to breed but disperse widely after breeding. New Zealand counts 12 breeding endemics, given in the following list:
3.1 Fiordland Penguin
Eudyptes pachyrhynchus
3.2 Snares Penguin
Eudyptes robustus
3.3 Erect-Crested Penguin
Eudyptes sclateri
6.5 Buller’s Albatross
Thallasarche bulleri
9.9 Magenta Petrel
Pterodroma magentae
10.1 Chatham Petrel
Pterodroma axillaris
10.8 Cook’s Petrel
Pterodroma cookii
11.1 Pycroft’s Petrel
Pterodroma pycrofti
12.7 Westland Petrel
Procellaria westlandica
12.9 Parkinson’s Petrel
Procellaria parkinsoni
14.2 Buller’s Shearwater
Puffinus bulleri
14.5 Hutton’s Shearwater
Puffinus huttoni
