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Introduction

The unique geography of India has contributed greatly to its historical and cultural developments. The Himalayas ring the north, while the river basins, desert wastelands and Deccan plateau cover much of the peninsula which is encircled by the Arabian Sea to the west, the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Indian Ocean to the south. Landscape, climate and history have all shaped the architecture of India.

One of the most notable of the small steatite seals discovered at Mohenjodaro is the image of the Indian humped bull with its pronounced muscularity and a heavy dewlap. Despite its diminutive size, it still conveys an impression of immense strength and power. Other animals commonly depicted on these seals include the elephant, the bison and the crocodile.

The Vedic (or fire) altar was the first formal place of worship, built more than 3,000 years ago of brick. It represented the cosmic worlds of celestial space, the terrestrial world and the world of air.

The history of the country has its beginnings in the valley of the Indus River, where 5,000 years ago, around 3000 BC, a remarkable civilisation flourished. Whole cities have been excavated, and a range of artefacts found, but much of the civilisation still remains a mystery because its script has not yet been deciphered. However, the statuettes, seals and other implements found tell of an agrarian society which worshipped, amongst other things, the concept of fertility. This civilisation had trade and other links with contemporary civilisations of the west, contacts being maintained by caravans traveling through mountain passes of the Himalayas.

The Indusvalley civilisation declined about 2000 BC. The causes are not known, but could include drought, floods or drying up of trade.

The Arrival of Hinduism

About 400 years later, various Central Asian tribes began crossing over into India. This migration of fair-skinned people, called the Indo-Aryans, who spoke a language deriving from the same source as Latin and Greek, is again shrouded in mystery for an entirely different set of reasons. The lndo-Aryans were pastoral. They worshipped fire and had anthropomorphic gods and well-established rituals of prayer which were coded in a set of oral texts called the Vedas, which only assumed a literary form 500 years later. Their religion eventually came to be known as Hinduism. The Aryans settled down in the fertile plain of the Ganges River, subjugated the native tribes, and started the process of cultural assimilation that has been one of the hallmarks of the Indian sub-continent's history. Unfortunately, even though literary texts provide us with some evidence of the architectural activities of the time, no archaeological evidence remains.

Aryan society was divided into four varna or castes, of which the uppermost, the brahmanas, monopolised Vedic religion. Reaction against this led to the birth of several dissident religions in the subcontinent, including Buddhism and Jainism. Buddhism was founded in the 5th century BC, and received royal patronage 200 years later under the Mauryan king Ashoka, who converted to the faith after a bloody battle fought against the king of Kalinga (in Orissa) on the eastern coast of India. It was around this time that Alexander of Macedonia reached India, and though he eventually did not succeed in extending his empire to this part of the world, his invasion brought the tradition of stone carving to the Indian subcontinent. Ashoka used the knowledge of stone craft to begin the tradition of stone architecture in India, dedicated to Buddhism. Proof that prior to this period Indian architecture had a strong, well-developed tradition of building in wood, bamboo and thatch is available in the forms created in stone by Ashoka's architects and craftsmen. All the architecture of the period shows that wooden structural forms, especially those of column, beam and lintel, were being replicated in stone.

Among the earliest examples of Gupta architecture are the caves at Udaygiri (4th-5th century AD). They are primarily rock-cut cells of a primitive nature, carved into a sandstone hill near Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh.

The Mauryas and the Guptas

The first great Indian empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 321 BC and his capital at Pataliputra (Patna) is reputed to have been the largest city in the world at the time. A sound administrative system, clear-cut social order, peace and security established a firm foundation that led to the rule of Ashoka, a great and visionary emperor. Although he ruthlessly expanded his kingdom during the first eight years of his rule, Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism thereafter caused him to espouse non-violence while maintaining a pragmatism in all matters of governance. Only the most southernmost kingdoms of the peninsula remained independent while Ashoka's empire extended across the length and breadth of the rest of India. The extent of his kingdom is evident from the thousands of stupas, pillars and rocks bearing Buddhist edicts erected by Ashoka. His legacy lives on in the Sarnath pillar decorated with four lions that has been adopted as an emblem of independent India.

After the Mauryas, it was not until almost 500 years later that another great dynasty united the country and gave the creative arts and matters of governance inspired patronage. During the era of the Guptas, also referred to as the Golden or Classical Age, the Hindu temple, in particular, acquired an ornate image with the embellishment of extravagant sculptures.

A contemporary map showing India's historical sites.

The Earliest Architectural Traditions

The earliest traditions of building in stone in the Indian subcontinent were those of cave and rock-cut architecture, inspired by itinerant Buddhist monks. Later, the caves excavated by these monks were cut into to create ornate interiors. Gradually, the transition from rock-cut to stone-made architecture took place all over the subcontinent, and the monumental architecture of this period, built to survive through time, is all stone-cut or stone-made.

Buddhist, Jain and Hindu architecture continued to be created all over the subcontinent, with a constant overlap and synthesis. St Thomas had reached the southern shores of India in AD 52, and some churches may have been built, but again no evidence remains, and the predominant monumental architectural activity in the subcontinent at this time was inspired by Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism. The iconography of all three religions began to show a fair degree of synthesis of content and form, and many elements originating in one religious tradition were adopted by the others, once again demonstrating the inherent secularism within each diverse cultural tradition.

Although various Central Asian tribes, such as the Kushanas and the Shakas, continued to migrate into India, their religious and cultural identities had the space that the diversity of cultural traditions in India provided and they gradually got assimilated into the complex Indian social structure. Racially and linguistically, however, there were the two major groupings of northern Aryans and southern Dravidians, but there also existed many other indigenous tribes in the eastern, northeastern and central regions with their own distinct cultural identities.

Gateway to the Sanchi stupa, one of the finest examples of early Buddhist architecture.

The earliest tradition of building in stone was that of rock-cut architecture, as seen in the Ellora Caves.

Central and North Indian Kingdoms

Within the country, the first millennium AD was a period of several kingdoms, many of them petty, many with imperial ambitions, which were involved in an almost constant struggle for political supremacy.

Between about AD 750 and 900, there was a tripartite struggle for power between the Palas in Bihar and Bengal in the east, the Pratiharas, descendants of the Rajasthani Gurjaras of central India, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. Constant conflict eventually depleted their resources, resulting in their decline.

This finely carved terracotta panel is from Vishnupur, west Bengal. In the absence of stone, terracotta was widely used in the region for both the structural form (derived from the thatched hut) and for decoration.

In the south, the Cholas, still a minor kingdom at the tip of the peninsula, were to achieve political and cultural hegemony between AD 862 and 1310, with an embassy of Chola merchants reaching as far as China in AD 1077.

Architecturally, this period saw prolific building activity, particularly in the south, with religious architecture dominating and some of the most well-known architectural masterpieces of India built in this period, often by minor historical figures. In fact, it can be generally said that perhaps in no other art as much as in architecture did religion play such a pivotal role in forming stylistic identities and associations, enhanced by India's artistic energies to absorb varying influences.

Eastern Renaissance

In Kalinga, in modern-day Orissa (and further east in Bengal), there was a brief but vibrant spurt of building activity between AD 700 and 1250. A unique style of temple architecture flourished in Bhubaneshwar, the artistic and religious capital of the region, which eventually merged in the south with the Dravidian forms and spread its influence westward toward Rajasthan. Beyond Bhubaneshwar, Konarak and further east, the terracotta temples of Gaur and Vishnupur, Bengal, both add brief but glorious chapters to the history of Hindu architecture's development north of the Vindhya range.

The Advent of Islam

Between AD 1001 and 1025, Mahmud of Ghazni (a small town in Afghanistan) plundered India seventeen times. Later, in AD 1192, on the country's northern frontiers, Mohammad Ghauri, a Turkish warlord from the steppes of Central Asia, advanced deep into the region and overthrew the Rajput king Prithviraj Chauhan, marking the political entry of Islam in India. Islam itself had touched India in the 8th century AD through Sind on the western shores, but it was only in the 12th century AD that a dynasty was established that had a different religious identity to the prevailing faith. The Mamluk or Slave dynasty was the first of the Muslim dynasties to be established in India, where it maintained its strong identity of culture and religion.

The Parsvanatha Temple is one of the most magnificent of the temples of Khajuraho (11th century AD).

The Muslims introduced a new structural system, the arcuate system of construction, with its arch and dome, into the existing architectural vocabulary based on the trabeate system of beam, column and lintel. They also introduced a new form of decoration, based on geometry and calligraphy, into the already present iconographic imagery of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Over the next 700 years, art, architecture, music and literature saw a synthesis of traditions from all these religions, and the creation of a distinct style of aesthetics.

The Jama Masjid in Delhi is the largest mosque in India. It was built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in 1656 and took six years to complete. The 28 meter square courtyard accommodates up to 20,000 people at prayer time. The central arch is framed by two minarets, behind which three black and white marble domes cover the prayer hall inside.

Even though it was in Delhi that Islam had established its Indian empire, the rest of India, including the Deccan, soon saw smaller provincial governments emerging. The uneasy truce between these Islamic kingdoms and the established Hindu kingdoms was broken occasionally. Architecturally, however, the cross influence of both cultures proved to be both invigorating as well as long-lasting.

The Great Mughals

In AD 1526, Babur, a young prince from Samarkand in Central Asia, defeated the Delhi sultan Ibrahim Lodi, and established the Mughal dynasty. It was Babur's grandson Akbar who finally brought a measure of political stability to the north.

The Mughal period is synonymous in the history of the subcontinent with some of the finest developments in art and architecture. Akbar's political policy of integrating disparate elements and forging alliances with Hindu Rajput kings, who had earlier been sworn enemies, was reflected in the aesthetic idiom that was created under the Mughals, with the fusion of Persian, Muslim and classical Hindu styles. The high point of Mughal architecture is, of course, the Taj Mahal, but each of the six great rulers of the dynasty can lay claim to memorable buildings and works of art.

The East India Company

At the turn of the 16th century, the entire sub-continent was divided into small warring fiefdoms, creating a certain amount of political instability. Vasco da Gama had already landed at Calicut in southern India in 1498, and tales of India's wealth had reached almost all parts of the world, including Europe. The Portuguese, the Dutch, the French and the British all wanted to establish colonies in India, although their motives ranged from the religious to the economic. The trade and other links between various European powers and Mughal India led to the British establishing the East India Company, which eventually extended its commercial interests to play a more political role in the subcontinent. By 1857, the last Mughal emperor had been deposed by the British, who had brought most of India under the dynasty's domination. Finally, India was declared to be a colony of Imperial Britain.

Two hundred years of colonial rule created a drastic schism in architectural developments. The Western rulers brought new concepts of building which they imposed on the traditional vocabulary. Broadly classified as the Colonial style, this became a hybrid manifestation of new and old structural forms and decorative elements. Public institutions such as railway stations, post offices and administrative centers entered the realm of building. Domestic architecture was typified by the bungalow. For nearly 5,000 years, the Indian subcontinent had lured outsiders who came to conquer but stayed and merged their identities and became a part of India. The British, however, remained outsiders, and their economic and political exploitation of the country finally ended in 1947 when India became independent. India's struggle for political freedom was largely peaceful even though independence was gained after the traumatic partition of India and the creation of Pakistan.

The modern phase in Indian architecture is still very young. Though Western masters of the 20th century such as Le Corbusier and Louis Kahn have left their imprint on the urban landscape, there is a growing debate among a new generation of Indian architects on tradition versus modernity and what is most relevant to India in the 21st century.

Also known as the Constantia Palace, La Martiniere College in Lucknow is named after the French adventurer Claude Martin, who made Lucknow his home. In 1793, he was reputed to be the richest European living there. Constantia Palace was built in the style of a Gothic chateau, lavishly decorated with animals and mythological figures on the façade. Of the two cannons on the terrace, one was cast by Martin himself, along with the bronze bell. Martin died in 1840 and in his will stipulated that the building become a school for boys.

Early postcard of the Indian Museum in Calcutta, the largest and oldest museum in India. Designed by Walter Granville (1875), it exhibits the classic qualities of colonial architecture in its planning and façade details.