Читать книгу Forest Ecology - Dan Binkley - Страница 2

1  Cover

2  Title Page

3  Copyright Page

4  Dedication Page

5  Preface How Do We Come to Understand Forests? How Confident Should You Be? All Forest Ecology Fits Into a Framework and a Method A Picture May Be Worth 1000 Words, But a Graph Can Be Worth Even More The Most Important Points to Understand from Figures B and C Are Not About Precipitation or Temperature Confidence Bands Around Trends Come in Two Types The Stories in This Book Have Two Pieces, Told in Three Ways Forests Are Complex Systems That Are Not Tightly Determined

6  Acknowledgements

7  CHAPTER 1: The Nature of Forests Forest Ecology Deals with Individual Trees Across Time Many Processes Occur in a Tree Every Hour Tree Physiology Follows Daily Cycles Trees Must Cope with Seasonal Cycles Through Each Year Trees Grow and Reproduce at Times Scales of a Century The Story of Forests Is More than the Sum of the Individual Trees, Because Interactions Are So Strong The Coweeta Forests Aren't the Same as Two Centuries Ago Across Dozens of Generations of Trees, Almost Everything Changed at Coweeta The Futures of the Tree and the Forest Will Depend on Both Gradual, Predictable Changes and Contingent Events Ecological Afterthoughts: Is a Forest an Organism?

8  CHAPTER 2: Forest Environments Climate Influences Where Forest Occur, and How They Grow Warmer Forests Have More Species of Trees Chemical and Biological Reactions Go Faster with Increasing Temperature Temperature is the Balance Point Between Energy Gains and Losses All Objects Shine; Hot Objects Shine Brightly Incoming Sunlight Decreases in Winter and at Higher Latitudes Forests Receive Shortwave Sunlight, and Shine off Longwave Radiation Temperatures Decline with Increasing Latitude Temperatures Increase at Lower Elevations Temperature Variation Over Time, and Across Space, Strongly Influences Forest Ecology Temperature Strongly Influences Phenology and Growth Forests Use Very Large Amounts of Water Water Flows Down Gradients of Potential, Which Sometimes Means Going Up Wind Shapes Trees and Forests Events and Interactions Are More Important Than Averages and Single Factors Fires Depend on Temperature, Water, Winds Droughts Affect Trees, Beetles, Forest Structure and Fire Intensity Weather Events Can Matter More than Averages Ecological Afterthoughts

9  CHAPTER 3: Evolution and Adaptation in Forests What's in a Name? The Core Idea of Evolution Is the Combination of Variation, Failure, and Innovation Darwin Could Not Explain Why Variations Occurred, or Why They Were Passed on to Offspring Does Selection Work on Species or on Genes, or Is This Only a Chicken‐and‐Egg Question? Biology Operates from a Simple Story of DNA to Incredible Complexity of Proteins and Biochemistry Why Are There Only Two Species of Tulip Poplar, and Why Are They 12 000 km Apart? Tall Growth Requires Strong Stems The First Trees from Seeds Were Gymnosperms Collaboration with Insects Helped Angiosperms Take over the Planet The Highest Diversity Is in Tropical Rain Forests Do all Trees Need to Have Trunks? Some Broadleaved Trees Make Fertilizer Out of Thin Air What's the Largest Tree in the World? History Has No Need to Repeat Itself Critchfield Spruce Melted Away at the End of the Last Ice Age Ponderosa Pine Went from Obscurity to Prominence in Just a Few Thousand Years Eastern Hemlock Has Had a Dynamic History of Up and Down Almost all the Animal Species Are Missing from Temperate and Boreal Forests Climate, Animals and Fire Interact Across Forest Generations Modern Forests Are Changing Faster Than Ever, on a Global Scale Ecological Afterthoughts

10  CHAPTER 4: Physiology and Life History of Trees Biological Energy Is About Moving Electrons Forest Energy Comes from Sunlight; Wood Comes from Thin Air Why Are Leaves Green? Leaves Are Not Always Green Carbon Uptake Is the Second Half of Photosynthesis Growth Happens After Photosynthesis – Sometimes Long After Trees Do Not Live by Carbon Alone Photosynthesis and Growth Depend on Acquisition of Resources More Leaves Means More Light Capture, up to a Point One Square‐Meter of Leaves Has a Mass of 50–150 g Each Square Meter of a Forest has Multiple Layers of Leaves above Large Trees Depend on Large Roots Networks of Fine Roots Permeate Soils Do Roots Take Up Water and Nutrients? Trees (and Mycorrhizal Fungi) Obtain Nutrients by the Interaction of Mass Flow and Diffusion Life History Is the Story of Going from Seed to Mature Seed‐Producing Tree Tree Seeds Range in Mass from Smaller than a Flea to Larger than a Mouse Why Is the Understory of a Forest a Tough Place for Small Trees to Thrive? All Good Summers Come to an End Most Trees Die Young Reproduction Is the Beginning and the End of Life History Stories Ecological Afterthoughts: What Benefit Comes from Aspen Having Chlorophyll in Its Bark?

11  CHAPTER 5: Ecology of Wildlife in Forests Many Species of Trees Coevolved with Animals as Seed Dispersers Some Animal Species Specialize in Eating Trees Livestock Grazing and Browsing has been a Core Part of People’s Livelihoods Through History Was Aldo Leopold Right About the Kaibab Deer Herd? Wildlife Population Dynamics Occur Within Complex Ecological Systems Moose and Wolves Established New Populations on Isle Royale in the Early 1900s The Cycles of Snowshoe Hares and Lynx Repeat, but They Are Far from Simple Patterns and Processes of Wildlife Population Dynamic Shift Across Space and Time Good Ideas Without Good Evidence May Be Unreliable, or Wrong Strong Evidence Comes from Comparisons of Treatments at the Same Point in Time Ecological Afterthoughts

12  CHAPTER 6: Forest Soils, Nutrient Cycling, and Hydrology Forests Need Soils for Physical Support Soils Here Are Different from Over There, and Soils Now Are Different from Soils Then Organic Matter is the Top Feature of Soils Clay Content Comes in Second to Organic Matter Soils Breathe The Variety of Soils Is Parsed into Soil Taxonomic Groups Soils Differ in Age, Even if Most Don't Have Birthdays Trees Affect Soils Decomposition Reverses Photosynthesis and Nutrient Uptake Almost all Forest Biodiversity Is Found in the Soil Leonardo da Vinci Couldn't Figure out How Water Got to the Top of Mountains The Atmosphere Holds Only a Few Days of Precipitation Forest Water Budgets Begin with Precipitation Water Use by Forests Can Be Measured Across a Range of Scales Trees Use Most (or All) of the Water George Perkins Marsh (and Everyone Else) Was Wrong About the Effect of Forest Cutting on Water Reliable Generalizations Require Evidence from More than One Case Nutrients Make Life Possible Nutrients Come From the Atmosphere and From Rocks Biogeochemical Cycles Are Complex Decomposition is the Centerpiece of Nutrient Cycling in Forests Nutrient Losses Are Chronic and Episodic Ecological Afterthoughts: Consequences of a Warmer World for Snow, Streams, and Forests

13  CHAPTER 7: Ecology of Growth of Trees and Forests Forests Are Small and Large, and Growth Is the Key Process Driving Increases Growth is Examined in a Variety of Ways Yield Tables Were an Early Example of Parsing Variation in Forests Across Landscapes Patterns in Yield Tables Were Explained Based on “Growing Space” Production Ecology Parses Growth into Ecophysiological Factors Constrained by Mass Balance Forest Growth Is a Function of Resources in the Environment, Resources Acquired, and Efficiency of Resource Use The Growth of a Forest is the Sum of the Growth of All the Trees Large Trees Usually Grow Faster than Small Trees in the Same Forest Dense Forests Have the Highest Growth Rates Forest Growth Peaks at a Young Age and Then Declines, but Not the Growth of the Biggest Trees in the Forest Forest Growth Changes over Time, Not Just with Age Neighbors Influence the Growth of Trees How Might a Mixed‐Species Forest Grow Faster than a Single‐Species Forest? Mixed‐Species Forests Usually Cannot Match the Growth of Fast‐Growing Monocultures When a Species Increases Resource Supplies, Mixtures May (or May Not) Outperform Single‐Species Forests The Growth of Mixed‐Species Forests Changes over Time Mixed‐Species Forests Are not Only About Growth Interactions Between Species Understory Vegetation is Important in Most Forests Mortality Gets the Final Word on Forest Production Death is Not the End of the Story for Trees Ecological Afterthoughts: Is it Better to Remove Small Trees or Large Trees When Thinning a Forest?

14  CHAPTER 8: Forests Across Space The Three Most Important Things for a Tree Are Location, Location, and Location How Small Can a Forest Be? Forests May Be Divided Into Stands, But Not All Forests Are Structured As Distinct Stands People Engage with Forests by Defining Areas of Interest Larger Plots Contain More Species Vegetation Differs Between Locations Space Has Another Dimension for Animals Differences in Forests Usually Increase with Distance, But Not Always Location Matters Both Locally and Regionally Resource Use Varies Across Landscape Gradients Mind the Gap: Spatial Patterns of Trees Within Forests Modify Resource Supplies The Ecology of Gaps is Not Binary The Ecology of Gaps and Edges Affects Animals, and Is Shaped by Animals The Location of Each Tree Allows a Wide Range of Assessments of Forest Structure and Processes Forest‐Level Information Can Be Dissected Down to the Level of Individual Trees Riparian Forests Are Special and Important, for Different Reasons in Different Forests Spatial Patterns Are Important, Even in the Most Uniform Forests Forest Classification Is Different in the Twenty‐First Century Ecological Afterthoughts: When It's Not About the Trees

15  CHAPTER 9: Forests Through Time Sometimes a Classic Story Comes True Long‐Term Experimental Forests Provide Knowledge at the Scale of Tree Lifetimes When Recorded History Is Not Enough, Tree Rings Can Provide a Record of Both Age and Size Dendrochronology Developed Because There Are No Canals on Mars Dendrochronology Can Explain Past Forest Structure and Dynamics Darwin's Ideas Contributed Very Little to Early Ideas of Forest Change (Unfortunately) Chronosequences Are a Shortcut to the Future, But They May Be Unreliable Strong Chronosequences Require Large Numbers of Replicates Growth Always Declines in Old Forests People Change How Forests Change Over Time Time Scales of Forests and Human Planning Do Not Always Match Over the Long‐Term, Forests Have Not Changed As Predicted Ecological Afterthoughts

16  CHAPTER 10: Events in Forests It's Remarkable That Trees Can Stand Up to Strong Winds Tree Stems May Break or Uproot Storms Blow in with a Wide Range of Wind Speeds Storm Impacts Can Be Severe in Local Areas Storms that Are Severe Enough to Be Named Are Strong Enough to Topple Vast Numbers of Trees How Large an Area Can Be Covered by a Single Storm? How Massive Can a Storm's Impact Be? When Will the Next Storm Come? The Next Storm Will Be Different Than the Last One Trees Provide the Dominant Structure of Forests, But Small Insects Can Play a Very Major Role How Do Tiny Insects Manage to Kill Large Trees? Which Trees Are Most Vulnerable to Mountain Pine Beetles? Which Forests Are Most Susceptible to Mountain Pine Beetles? Mountain Pine Beetle Impacts Are Consistent When Scaled Up to Regional Areas Tree Death Alters Environmental Conditions at Local Scales, But Less at Watershed Scales Why Don't Beetles Kill More Trees? Is This a Healthy Forest? Forests Often Thrive When Insects Kill Trees Should Forests with Lots of Beetle‐Killed Trees Be Logged? Other Dynamics of Forests and Beetles Occurred Across the Region Too Other Forests and Other Insects Have Other Stories Tree Diseases Are Reshaping Forests in a Globalized World Major Events May, or May Not, Influence the Probability of Other Major Events Events in Combinations Can Have Drastically Different Legacies Ecological Afterthought: The Ecology of Avalanches

17  CHAPTER 11: Events in Forests Forest Growth Sets the Stage for Rapid Return to Chemical Equilibrium Thick Bark Protects Cambium from Heat The Post‐Fire Forest May Be Dominated by Resprouting Vegetation Post‐Fire Environments Can Be Good for Seedling Establishment The Spatial Scale of Forest Fires is Important, But Not Simple Most Forest Fires Are Small, Though the Uncommon Large Fires Have Great Impacts Fires Burn Differently at Different Places Periods of Gradual Change Are Punctuated by the Large Changes from Fire Events Typical Fire‐Free Periods Within Forest Types Vary Across Sites and Over Centuries When Fire‐Free Intervals Get Longer, Forests Get Denser The Spatial Aspects of Fires Also Include Patterns Within Burned Patches Fire Ecology Might, or Might Not, Be Described with Fire Regimes Fires Change Soils Fires Generate Erosion in Areas That Burn, with Sediment Deposition Downslope Erosion After Fire is Usually Not a Problem, But Sometimes It's Very Severe Each Species of Animal Has a Different Response to Forest Fires Fires Interact with Other Major Events in Forests Ecological Afterthoughts: How Do Slow Changes in Forests Shape the Effects of Fires?

18  CHAPTER 12: Events in Forests Harvesting Is the Third Largest Forest Event Across the Planet Few Forests Are Plantations, But Plantations Provide Most of Our Wood Deforestation Can Be Tallied from Government Reports, or from Satellites Human Influences on Forests Have a Spectrum from Low to Very High Tree Farms Are All About Production, Not Broader Ecological Features How Sustainable Are Tree Farms? Managed Forests Come in a Variety of Systems Rotational Forests Have Birthdays Understories and Overstories Interact Through a Rotation Continuous Cover Forests Have no Birthdays, and Less Change Tree Growth Is Faster in Rotational Forestry than in Continuous Cover Forestry Management of Unmanaged Forests May Seem Like an Oxymoron How Does Retaining Trees Influence the Next Forest After Logging in Unmanaged Forests? Harvesting Is the End of the Line for Some Trees and Forests, and the Beginning of the Next Forest Harvesting Is Not the Only Big Event that Happens in Managed Forests Can Forests Remove Enough CO₂ from the Atmosphere to Save the Planet? Ecological Afterthoughts: What's Next for These Forests?

19  CHAPTER 13: Conservation, Sustainability and Restoration of Forests Conservation, Sustainability and Restoration Build Values, Ethics, and Esthetics onto a Foundation of Forest Ecology Conservation, Sustainability and Restoration Are About the Future Why Do Species Go Extinct, and How Can This Be Prevented? Conserving Old Forests Is Important, but Old Forests Do Not Last Forever Conservation and Sustainability Have Similarities Restoration Comes into Play When Conservation and Sustainability Have Not Been Achieved The History of a Forest Might Be Read in Reports, in Photographs, in Trees and Remnants of Trees Clues to the Past Structure of Forests Lurks in Tree Rings, Stumps, and Logs What Does It Take to Restore a Forest? Many Forests Have Reestablished Following Agricultural Land Use Forest Reestablishment May Be Faster with Planting, and Contain More Desirable Species Forest Reestablishment Leads to the Redevelopment of Forest Soils Reestablishing Forests in the Absence of Soils Is a Major Challenge, Requiring Insights and Money Management Can Shift Forests Away from Undesirable Conditions Two Key Ideas Connect Forest Ecology with Conservation, Sustainability, and Restoration Ecological Afterthoughts: Restoring Forests May Be About Restoring Non‐Tree Vegetation

20  CHAPTER 14: Forests of the Future Forests Have Already Changed, and Continue to Change Can Invasions Be Predicted? Some Forests Are More Invasible Than Others Not all Invasive Species Are Alike: Identity Matters Plantations of Non‐Native Trees Can Lead to Invasions Biological Control May Help Limit Invasive Species Genetics Matter The Future Is Certain to Be Warmer, with More CO₂ in the Atmosphere If Droughts Increase, Which Forests and Trees Will Show Increased Mortality? Changing Climates Will Change the Distribution of Species Fires Have Always Been Important in Forests, and Fires May Become More Important People Will Contribute to Shaping Future Forests All These Factors Will Interact to Shape the Dynamics of Future Forests Rocket Science Can Get You to the Moon, but Pocket Science Leads to Better Outcomes in Forests The Core Framework Actually Needs a Fourth Question Ecological Afterthoughts: Growing Meaning in Forests

21  References

22  Index

23  End User License Agreement