Читать книгу Forest Ecology - Dan Binkley - Страница 3

1 PrefaceFIGURE A The ecology of all forests can be approached with a core framework ...FIGURE B Stem growth in tropical forests is higher for sites with higher pre...FIGURE C The influence of both factors can be examined together by examini...FIGURE D Rates of wood growth for lodgepole pine forests in Yellowstone Nat...FIGURE E Sal is a major species across southern Asia, just one species of 7...

2 Chapter 1FIGURE 1.1 The Tree. This tulip poplar is a typical tree for temperate fores...FIGURE 1.2 The daily pattern of incoming sunlight (A) reflects the geometry ...FIGURE 1.3 Seasonal trends in incoming sunlight (A) lead to almost twofold d...FIGURE 1.4 Growth of yellow poplar trees is low in drier summers (a negative...FIGURE 1.5 The dominant tulip poplar tree in the center of this springtime p...FIGURE 1.6 Although this looks like a topographic map of the Coweeta Basin, ...FIGURE 1.7 Forest patterns commonly vary with elevation and with local topo...FIGURE 1.8 Forest composition in the Coweeta Basin in 1935 and in 1990. The ...FIGURE 1.9 As with the tulip poplar and tulip poplar forest examined in this...

3 Chapter 2FIGURE 2.1 The vegetation in the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains in north...FIGURE 2.2 The distributions of major types of forests can be mapped across ...FIGURE 2.3 The tallest trees in the world occur in cool, wet locations, and...FIGURE 2.4 Rates of chemical processes increase with increasing temperature,...FIGURE 2.5 On an afternoon when air temperature was 25 °C, the temperatures ...FIGURE 2.6 All objects emit radiation to the environment, and hotter object...FIGURE 2.7 The total potential sunlight (not accounting for clouds) at 23° l...FIGURE 2.8 The daily amount of incoming sunlight depends on the aspect of a ...FIGURE 2.9 The amount of incoming radiation received by a site depends not o...FIGURE 2.10 The energy budget for a forest clearcut in Oregon, USA on a summ...FIGURE 2.11 The temperature of the air in the forest in northern Arizona, U...FIGURE 2.12 Average annual temperatures for sites around the world decline w...FIGURE 2.13 Air temperature increases with decreasing elevation because incr...FIGURE 2.14 Daily comparisons of high and low temperatures at locations tha...FIGURE 2.15 The temperatures of the soil (10 cm below the O horizon) differe...FIGURE 2.16 Removing some or all of the tree canopy from a high‐elevation fo...FIGURE 2.17 Buds on spruce trees in northern Sweden burst open and expand ne...FIGURE 2.18 The average growth of wood in tropical forests around the world ...FIGURE 2.19 Forests occur in temperate regions where precipitation is typica...FIGURE 2.20 Severe winds that are not too extreme may topple individual tre...FIGURE 2.21 What will happen in this forest on a windy day in June? Back in...FIGURE 2.22 Severe droughts can foster outbreaks of bark beetle populations,...FIGURE 2.23 The major tree species in the Rocky Mountains, USA can be plott...

4 Chapter 3FIGURE 3.1 Millions of years ago, tulip poplars were found across much of wh...FIGURE 3.2 Some examples of trees from the major conifer families (beginning...FIGURE 3.3 The view from 30 m up: Tropical rain forests are famous for thei...FIGURE 3.4 The young fig in Kerala, India in the upper two panels is wrappe...FIGURE 3.5 Red alder trees form a symbiosis with Frankia bacteria, housed i...FIGURE 3.6 The 50 or so aspen stems visible in this picture are only half of...FIGURE 3.7 The history of vegetation at a site may be recorded in the form o...FIGURE 3.8 Ponderosa pine trees were absent from the Rocky Mountains during ...FIGURE 3.9 Hemlock was a major species of the forests of southern Ontario, ...FIGURE 3.10 The current animal community in North America bears slight resem...FIGURE 3.11 Change is the only consistent story of forest ecology for the l...FIGURE 3.12 Earth is warming, and this warming will be accompanied by chang...

5 Chapter 4FIGURE 4.1 The apparent color of leaves changes in the autumn as changing c...FIGURE 4.2 Rates of transpiration from leaves depends on the density and ope...FIGURE 4.3 Water flows “down” gradients of potential, from high potentials ...FIGURE 4.4 The structure of leaves in the canopy of a rain forest in Costa R...FIGURE 4.5 Eucalyptus plantations in Hawaii also show a clear pattern betwee...FIGURE 4.6 The photosynthetic capacity of needles (with full sunlight) in a ...FIGURE 4.7 The tropical location of this eucalyptus plantation in Brazil exp...FIGURE 4.8 This onyina (or kapok) tree in Ghana has large buttresses which d...FIGURE 4.9 Fine roots concentrate in the upper soil, including the O horizon...FIGURE 4.10 The tiny seeds of cottonwoods provide almost no resources to sup...FIGURE 4.11 Aaltonen (1919) concluded that light alone did not explain the g...FIGURE 4.12 Douglas‐fir seedlings planted in the understory of a Norway spru...FIGURE 4.13 Scots pine trees in Finland can withstand temperatures of −50 °...FIGURE 4.14 Two decades after a forest‐replacing fire, a forest in northern ...FIGURE 4.15 The survivorship curve (left) for a mountain palm forest in Pu...FIGURE 4.16 The combination of the addition of new trees and the death of e...FIGURE 4.17 Many (most?) broadleaved trees can form new tree stems from root...FIGURE 4.18 Most forest trees originate from seeds produced by trees in the ...FIGURE 4.19 Beech trees have masting years of high seed production at inter...FIGURE 4.20 The bark of aspen is white/gray on the surface, with a layer of...

6 Chapter 5FIGURE 5.1 Koa forests in Hawaii descended from seeds brought from Australia...FIGURE 5.2 Beaver‐cutting of aspen stems (top left) typically does not kill ...FIGURE 5.3 A fivefold increase in ungulate populations (Y axis is scaled to ...FIGURE 5.4 Domestic livestock are common in many forests, including reindeer...FIGURE 5.5 The age structure of aspen across the Kaibab Plateau supported th...FIGURE 5.6 Simple stories could be imagined as useful explanations for popul...FIGURE 5.7 Map of Isle Royale, where dynamics of populations of moose and wo...FIGURE 5.8 The dynamics of moose and wolf populations on Isle Royale followe...FIGURE 5.9 A simulation of forest vegetation in response to intensity of moo...FIGURE 5.10 Some animal populations fluctuate on a semi‐regular cycle, thoug...FIGURE 5.11 Populations of snowshoe hares increased with the addition of foo...FIGURE 5.12 The food web in the “lynx/hare” system in the Yukon includes str...FIGURE 5.13 Roe deer are medium‐size (20–30 kg) browsing herbivores, with de...FIGURE 5.14 Over a 30‐year period, the population of elk on the Uncompahgre ...FIGURE 5.15 Reducing a high population of red deer in the Cairngorm mountai...FIGURE 5.16 The hypothesis that elk benefit from thermal cover in winter was...FIGURE 5.17 Fencing can be used to test for the effect of animals in a singl...FIGURE 5.18 Two canyons in Zion National Park, Utah, US, look very different...

7 Chapter 6FIGURE 6.1 Individual trees can find sufficient support, water, and nutrie...FIGURE 6.2 These profiles come from sites just a few km apart in Brazil. Th...FIGURE 6.3 Forest growth differs by more than a factor of two across a 10...FIGURE 6.4 A common‐garden experiment in Toronto, Ontario, Canada found a l...FIGURE 6.5 A common‐garden experiment in Poland included plots with linden,...FIGURE 6.6 The diversity of life in soils is almost inconceivable, so here ...FIGURE 6.7 The water content of the atmosphere varies with latitude (high i...FIGURE 6.8 Precipitation falls mostly on canopies in forests, and high surfa...FIGURE 6.9 The growth of trees often increases going down slopes. The two bl...FIGURE 6.10 Streams flow with water down a valley, but water also moves thr...FIGURE 6.11 Evapotranspiration can be measured at varying scales in forest...FIGURE 6.12 The amount of water returned to the atmosphere by forests in A...FIGURE 6.13 Streamflow increased after clearcutting a watershed in the Cow...FIGURE 6.14 Streamflow increases when trees are removed, as a result of lo...FIGURE 6.15 Slash pine trees develop sparse crowns and grow poorly on this ...FIGURE 6.16 The addition of nitrogen from the atmosphere to forests and oth...FIGURE 6.17 The forms, transformations, and movement of N in forests are co...FIGURE 6.18 The log in the upper left decomposed over about a century, and ...FIGURE 6.19 The annual flow of streamwater increases across watersheds of ...

8 Chapter 7FIGURE 7.1 The biomass of old growth forests differs among forest types ar...FIGURE 7.2 During the summer, total photosynthesis is quite high for a 60‐y...FIGURE 7.3 The mass of a eucalyptus tree was estimated by cutting down the ...FIGURE 7.4 Classic forestry approaches determined the general trend of volum...FIGURE 7.5 The production of forests across a watershed in Idaho, USA (Figur...FIGURE 7.6 The production ecology of individual trees can be used to unders...FIGURE 7.7 The growth of forests increases (or plateaus) with increasing den...FIGURE 7.8 The growth of an unthinned forest of tulip poplar (on a site whe...FIGURE 7.9 A long‐term experimental plot near the coast of Oregon tracked th...FIGURE 7.10 Growth of a focal tree (circled in red in the left picture) may ...FIGURE 7.11 The size and distance of nearby N‐fixing falcataria trees infl...FIGURE 7.12 A mixed plantation of falcataria and eucalyptus grew 40% more a...FIGURE 7.13 An analysis of 5000 inventory plots in German forests showed no ...FIGURE 7.14 Experiments on mixed‐species forests compare the growth in mono...FIGURE 7.15 The effects of mixture changes over time, as shown in this expe...FIGURE 7.16 A common garden experiment in Poland included replicated plots o...FIGURE 7.17 Forests in Ontario, Canada were sampled for understory biomass i...FIGURE 7.18 The 50‐year changes in a forest in coastal Oregon (same forest a...FIGURE 7.19 The number of trees of various sizes did not change much in an ...FIGURE 7.20 Forests may accumulate decaying woody material for decades or ce...FIGURE 7.21 At the end of a century‐long rotation, a Norway spruce forest i...

9 Chapter 8FIGURE 8.1 The spatial dimensions of forests include the land area beneath t...FIGURE 8.2 The minimal size of a forest might be the domain of a single tre...FIGURE 8.3 The delineation of an operationally useful unit, a strand, is cle...FIGURE 8.4 A scale of 1 ha (0.01 km², upper left) typically includes dozens...FIGURE 8.5 The number of plant species found in a forest dominated by aspen ...FIGURE 8.6 Grazing impacts have been studied in thousands of experiments wh...FIGURE 8.7 Elk allocate time across landscapes in the summer in Rocky Mounta...FIGURE 8.8 The species composition of plots in an evergreen, broadleaved for...FIGURE 8.9 The basal area (and biomass) of a three‐century‐old forest in Ma...FIGURE 8.10 A 90 000‐ha landscape in Sequoia National Park in California, US...FIGURE 8.11 A broadleaved forest in Japan showed increasing stem biomass an...FIGURE 8.12 Transpiration varies from less than 200 mm yr⁻¹ at low el...FIGURE 8.13 The pattern of gaps across the Cedar Creek watershed in western...FIGURE 8.14 Most of the ground area beneath tropical forests receives only a...FIGURE 8.15 The edge effect of a clearcut adjacent to an intact forest depe...FIGURE 8.16 An outbreak of spruce budworms created dead patches and edges i...FIGURE 8.17 A map of a hectare of a Scots pine forest in Finland, showing cl...FIGURE 8.18 An old growth forest in western Washington, USA averaged almost ...FIGURE 8.19 The species, diameter, and location of all stems were mapped in ...FIGURE 8.20 The map of species, sizes, and locations can lead to other map...FIGURE 8.21 Statistical analyses can examine how clumped, random, or unifor...FIGURE 8.22 Riparian forests differ from upland ecosystems in dry regions, w...FIGURE 8.23 A large gradient in soils from upland to riparian locations in F...FIGURE 8.24 Clonal plantations of eucalyptus are some of the most uniform f...FIGURE 8.25 The probable risk of exotic plant encroachment was estimated ac...FIGURE 8.26 The pieces of the puzzle include thick‐barked old trees that su...

10 Chapter 9FIGURE 9.1 A classic story of forest change in the Rocky Mountains begins wi...FIGURE 9.2 The ponderosa pine forests in the Fort Valley Experimental Forest...FIGURE 9.3 After 20 years with no grazing, the impact of heavy grazing by li...FIGURE 9.4 Henry Thoreau measured the width of the first 50 years of growth...FIGURE 9.5 Tree rings contain information that can be extracted with dendro...FIGURE 9.6 Tree rings reveal the impact of an outbreak of the fungal pathoge...FIGURE 9.7 Sixty to eighty trees of each of three species were cored in a 20...FIGURE 9.8 The annual growth of eight giant sequoias was determined based o...FIGURE 9.9 Photos from Cooper's research plots in Glacier Bay, Alaska, USA. ...FIGURE 9.10 Benches are created on river floodplains, and newly deposited se...FIGURE 9.11 The trend in tree growth for lodgepole pine forests in Yellowst...FIGURE 9.12 The growth of young forests increases as roots and leaves increa...FIGURE 9.13 Stem production of a eucalyptus plantation in Hawaii, USA declin...FIGURE 9.14 Growth of forests across Sweden increased consistently by about ...FIGURE 9.15 A total of 250 years of change are illustrated in these diorama ...FIGURE 9.16 Deforestation removed two‐thirds of Massachusetts' forests withi...FIGURE 9.17 Land use in the Belgian Ardennes changed the forests in major wa...FIGURE 9.18 The growth of an individual tree is constrained by unavoidable, ...FIGURE 9.19 The vegetation in a 73 km² watershed in Yellowstone National Pa...

11 Chapter 10FIGURE 10.1 Insects (and other arthropods) comprise a large part of the spec...FIGURE 10.2 The risk of wind damage to trees and forests can be examined in...FIGURE 10.3 Severe winds break the stems of well‐rooted trees (left, lodgepo...FIGURE 10.4 Hurricane Hugo blew across Puerto Rico as a Category 4 storm (w...FIGURE 10.5 A tornado in Massachusetts, USA in 2011 toppled most of the lar...FIGURE 10.6 The storm Lothar had winds as high as 50 m s⁻¹ (200 km hrFIGURE 10.7 An analysis of over 200 forest inventory plots documented the ec...FIGURE 10.8 Hurricane Maria stormed across Puerto Rico in 2017, dropping 10...FIGURE 10.9 Airborne lidar images of Puerto Rico forests before (upper) an...FIGURE 10.10 Most of the non‐harvest mortality of forests across Europe res...FIGURE 10.11 Hurricanes occur frequently on and near Jamaica, but the storm...FIGURE 10.12 The photo on the left (10 x 10 km) shows a 150‐year...FIGURE 10.13 Bark beetles harm trees primarily by interrupting water flow f...FIGURE 10.14 Larger trees may be more susceptible, or less susceptible, to bark...FIGURE 10.15 A four‐decade experiment examined the effects of repeated thin...FIGURE 10.16 Across the Rocky Mountains in the USA, tree deaths from mountain...FIGURE 10.17 Twenty‐five watersheds across the Rocky Mountains in the USA had...FIGURE 10.18 This picture of the “red hand of death” comes from...FIGURE 10.19 A set of 20 forests in southeastern Wyoming, USA were dominat...FIGURE 10.20 Treatments were applied across 12 sites where dominant lodgepol...FIGURE 10.21 Across the western USA, several species of bark beetles showed...FIGURE 10.22 Old‐growth forests of spruce and fir, and of lodgepole pine, e...FIGURE 10.23 Avalanches are major events in some mountainous areas. An aval...

12 Chapter 11FIGURE 11.1 Cork oak in Portugal is a prime example of a fire‐adapted tree w...FIGURE 11.2 The thick bark of large ponderosa pine trees protects the growin...FIGURE 11.3 Indexes of risks from fire can be created by combining multiple...FIGURE 11.4 Some trees sprout new branches and leaves from buds in the camb...FIGURE 11.5 Many species resprout from surviving root systems or bases of ...FIGURE 11.6 A forest of lodgepole pine on a glacial moraine in Colorado, USA...FIGURE 11.7 A few years after a crown fire, the density of seedlings declin...FIGURE 11.8 A 2000‐ha fire in a spruce/fir forest in New Mexico, USA had pat...FIGURE 11.9 Most fires in Brazil are small, and few are very large. The two...FIGURE 11.10 Fires do not occur everywhere, all the time, or with the same i...FIGURE 11.11 Management of longleaf pine plots at the Tall Timbers Research...FIGURE 11.12 Fires may kill the cambium on part of a tree stem, leading to t...FIGURE 11.13 Fires return to ponderosa pine forests in northern Colorado wi...FIGURE 11.14 With a fire‐free period of over a century, the canopy of ponde...FIGURE 11.15 This hillside burned about a century ago, with many trees survi...FIGURE 11.16 Locations of trees and their ages allow partial reconstruction...FIGURE 11.17 Confidence in maps of fire regimes would be warranted if a simp...FIGURE 11.18 Nitrogen contained in organic matter burns just like the carbon...FIGURE 11.19 Fire impacts on soil include raising soil temperatures. The tr...FIGURE 11.20 Soils can have patches that repel water rather than absorb it,...FIGURE 11.21 Post‐fire erosion is usually minor, but in the less common situ...FIGURE 11.22 A severe forest fire in Warrumbungle National Park in New Sout...FIGURE 11.23 Many species thrive in the aftermath of fires, including beetl...FIGURE 11.24 A ponderosa pine forest in the Spring Mountains, Nevada, USA, ...

13 Chapter 12FIGURE 12.1 Archeological relocation of ancient Roman settlements showed le...FIGURE 12.2 Almost all forests fall into the category of unplanted, unmanag...FIGURE 12.3 Forests around the world have a wide range of costs and values, ...FIGURE 12.4 A spectrum of management intensity leads to very different fore...FIGURE 12.5 Intensively managed tree farms, such as clonal eucalyptus planta...FIGURE 12.6 The productivity of acacia more than doubled across four rotatio...FIGURE 12.7 Growth rates of eucalyptus across a large area of southern Brazi...FIGURE 12.8 The harvest that precedes a rotation can have a legacy on growth...FIGURE 12.9 Understory vegetation is typically very important in managed ro...FIGURE 12.10 Continuous cover forestry entails harvesting of single trees, o...FIGURE 12.11 A computer visualization of a continuous‐cover forest, viewed ...FIGURE 12.12 Forests that developed without direct management may have very ...FIGURE 12.13 After clearcutting of an old‐growth forest in Oregon, USA, the...FIGURE 12.14 Experiments in variable retention silviculture on Vancouver Isl...FIGURE 12.15 Understory responses to variable retention treatments in the MA...FIGURE 12.16 Variable retention treatments across four sitesshowed stro...FIGURE 12.17 Harvesting 50‐year‐old managed forests of Douglas‐fir in the no...FIGURE 12.18 Most logging is done by machines that cut trees, and sometimes ...FIGURE 12.19 The risks from wind generally increase after forest harvesting ...FIGURE 12.20 Severe fires in 1939 burned unmanaged forests across New South...FIGURE 12.21 Rates of harvest increased in Sweden in the past 25 years, lead...FIGURE 12.22 The unmanaged forest on the left has trees of a variety of age...

14 Chapter 13FIGURE 13.1 A panoramic photo set was taken from a sycamore tree in 1939, l...FIGURE 13.2 90% or more of known extinctions of mammals and birds resulted f...FIGURE 13.3 These western hemlock and Douglas‐fir trees are over 400 years ...FIGURE 13.4 The population of elk was held low in the mid‐1900s through hunt...FIGURE 13.5 A lithograph was made of the view from Mount Trumbull in Arizona...FIGURE 13.6 A century of change in the San Juan Mountains of Colorado, USA, ...FIGURE 13.7 The historical forest composition and structure in northern Wisc...FIGURE 13.8 Historical composition and structure can be examined based on c...FIGURE 13.9 A broadleaved forest in New Hampshire, USA had all trees cut an...FIGURE 13.10 A young reestablished forest was cleared at this site near Pem...FIGURE 13.11 An experiment that mixed 20 native species (fast‐growing, slow‐...FIGURE 13.12 The cost of reestablishing native tree species might be reduce...FIGURE 13.13 These soils are 25 m apart in the Duke Forest in North Carolina...FIGURE 13.14 A greenhouse experiment demonstrated that acacia seedlings bar...FIGURE 13.15 A large fire in Arizona, USA (Rodeo‐Chediski) burned more sever...FIGURE 13.16 A 50‐year‐old plantation of Douglas‐fir (with some western hem...FIGURE 13.17 A restoration treatment of this ponderosa pine forest in northe...

15 Chapter 14FIGURE 14.1 The forests of the eastern United States since 1980 experienced...FIGURE 14.2 Across North America, annual mortality rates increased from nea...FIGURE 14.3 Henry David Thoreau recorded the timing of flower blooming and ...FIGURE 14.4 A MAXENT analysis of sites in Rocky Mountain National Park, USA...FIGURE 14.5 Regions of the USA have up to several hundred invasive (non‐na...FIGURE 14.6 Forests in Rocky Mountain National Park, USA with high cover of...FIGURE 14.7 The falcataria trees in the upper picture were more than 40 m t...FIGURE 14.8 The pictures show the invasion of lodgepole pine (from North A...FIGURE 14.9 Before the introduction of parasitoid flies, invasive winter mo...FIGURE 14.10 The importance of provenance (the geographic location of seed ...FIGURE 14.11 The patterns of ¹³C isotopes in tree rings from over 400 fores...FIGURE 14.12 A strong, three‐year drought in the Coweeta forest led to wides...FIGURE 14.13 A much greater percentage of small tulip poplar trees died fro...FIGURE 14.14 Mortality was higher for taller trees with drought in Califor...FIGURE 14.15 The extent of forest fires in the USA more than doubled after ...FIGURE 14.16 A shift to a warmer, drier climate with more frequent drought...FIGURE 14.17 A random exercise illustrates how shortening the period betwe...FIGURE 14.18 An aspen/conifer forest was harvested to promote development o...FIGURE 14.19 The core framework that applies to all forests, across space ...FIGURE 14.20 What insights, meanings, and beauty will you quilt together f...