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a. In the past, most of our interventions have taken place when a revolution was in full force or when the spirit of revolution was rampant. In view of these conditions (which are so often encountered in small wars) it may be well to consider briefly some of the characteristics of revolutions.

b. The knowledge of the people at any given moment of history involves an understanding of their environment, and above all, their past. The influence of racial psychology on the destiny of a people appears plainly in the history of those subject to perpetual revolutions. When composed largely of mixed races—that is to say, of individuals whose diverse heredities have dissociated their ancestral characteristics—those populations present a special problem. This class is always difficult to govern, if not ungovernable, owing to the absence of a fixed character. On the other hand, sometimes a people who have been under a rigid form of government may affect the most violent revolutions. Not having succeeded in developing progressively, or in adapting themselves to changes of environment, they are likely to react violently when such adaptation becomes inevitable.

c. Revolution is the term generally applied to sudden political changes, but the expression may be employed to denote any sudden transformation whether of beliefs, ideas, or doctrines. In most cases the basic causes are economic. Political revolutions ordinarily result from real or fancied grievances, existing in the minds of some few men, but many other causes may produce them. The word “discontent” sums them up. As soon as discontent becomes general a party is formed which often becomes strong enough to offer resistance to the government. The success of a revolution often depends on gaining the assistance or neutrality of the regular armed forces. However, it sometimes happens that the movement commences without the knowledge of the armed forces; but not infrequently it has its very inception within these forces. Revolutions may take place in the capital, and by contagion spread through the country. In other instances the general disaffection of the people takes concrete form in some place remote from the capital, and when it has gathered momentum moves on the capital.

d. The rapidity with which a revolution develops is made possible by modern communication facilities and publicity methods. Trivial attendant circumstances often play highly important roles in contributing to revolution and must be observed closely and given appropriate consideration. The fact is that beside the great events of which history treats there are the innumerable little facts of daily life which the casual observer may fail to see. These facts individually may be insignificant. Collectively, their volume and power may threaten the existence of the government. The study of the current history of unstable countries should include the proper evaluation of all human tendencies. Local newspapers and current periodicals, are probably the most valuable sources for the study of present psychological trends of various nations. Current writings of many people of different classes comprise a history of what the people are doing and thinking and the motives for their acts. Thus, current periodicals, newspapers, etc., will more accurately portray a cross section of the character of the people. In studying the political and psychical trends of a country, one must ascertain whether or not all news organs are controlled by one political faction, in order to avoid developing an erroneous picture of the situation.

e. Governments often almost totally fail to sense the temper of their people. The inability of a government to comprehend existing conditions, coupled with its blind confidence in its own strength, frequently results in remarkably weak resistance to attack from within.

f. The outward events of revolutions are always a consequence of changes, often unobserved, which have gone slowly forward in men’s minds. Any profound understanding of a revolution necessitates a knowledge of the mental soil in which the ideas that direct its course have to germinate. Changes in mental attitude are slow and hardly perceptible; often they can be seen only by comparing the character of the people at the beginning and at the end of a given period.

g. A revolution is rarely the result of a widespread conspiracy among the people. Usually it is not a movement which embraces a very large number of people or which calls into play deep economic or social motives. Revolutionary armies seldom reach any great size; they rarely need to in order to succeed. On the other hand, the military force of the government is generally small, ill equipped, and poorly trained; not infrequently a part, if not all of it, proves to be disloyal in a political crisis.

h. The majority of the people, especially in the rural districts, dislike and fear revolutions, which often involve forced military service for themselves and destruction of their livestock and their farm produce. However, they may be so accustomed to misgovernment and exploitation that concerted effort to check disorderly tendencies of certain leaders never occurs to them. It is this mass ignorance and indifference rather than any disposition to turbulence in the nation as a whole, which has prevented the establishment of stable government in many cases.

i. Abuses by the officials in power and their oppression of followers of the party not in power, are often the seeds of revolution. The spirit which causes the revolution arouses little enthusiasm among the poor natives at large unless they are personally affected by such oppression. The revolution, once started, naturally attracts all of the malcontents and adventurous elements in the community. The revolution may include many followers, but its spirit emanates from a few leaders. These leaders furnish the spark without which there would be no explosion. Success depends upon the enthusiastic determination of those who inspire the movement. Under effective leadership the mass will be steeped in revolutionary principles, and imbued .with a submission to the will of the leader and an enthusiastic energy to perform acts in support thereof. Finally, they feel that they are the crusaders for a new deal which will regenerate the whole country. In extremely remote, isolated, and illiterate sections an educated revolutionary leader may easily lead the inhabitants to believe that they, in the act of taking up arms, are actually engaged in repelling invasion. Many such ruses are employed in the initial stages and recruiting is carried on in this manner for long periods and the inhabitants are in a state of ignorance of the actual situation.

j. How is this situation to be met ? A knowledge of the laws relating to the psychology of crowds is indispensible to the interpretation of the elements of revolutionary movements, and to their conduct. Each individual of the crowd, based on the mere fact that he is one of many, senses an invincible power which at once nullifies the feeling of personal responsibility. This spirit of individual irresponsibility and loss of identity must be overcome by preventing the mobilization or concentration of revolutionary forces, and by close supervision of the actions of individuals.

k. Another element of mob sentiment is imitation. This is particularly true in people of a low order of education. Attempt should be made to prevent the development of a hero of the revolutionary movement, and no one should be permitted to become a martyr to the cause. Members of a crowd also display an exaggerated independence.

I. The method of approaching the problem should be to make revolutionary acts nonpaying or nonbeneficial and at the same time endeavor to remove or remedy the causes or conditions responsible for the revolution. One obstacle in dealing with a revolution lies in the difficulty of determining the real cause of the trouble. When found, it is often disclosed as a minor fault of the simplest nature. Then the remedies are also simple.

m. The opposing forces may employ modern weapons and technique adapted to regular organized units, but the character of the man who uses these weapons remains essentially the same as it always was. The acts of a man are determined by his character; and to understand or predict the action of a leader or a people their character must be understood. Their judgments or decisions are based upon their intelligence and experience. Unless a revolutionary leader can be discountenanced in the eyes of his followers, it may be best to admit such leadership. Through him a certain discipline may be exercised which will control the actions of a revolutionary army; for without discipline, people and armies become barbarian hordes.

n. In general, revolutionary forces are new levies, poorly trained, organized, and equipped. Yet they can often be imbued with an ardent enthusiasm and are capable of heroism to the extent of giving their lives unhesitatingly in support of their beliefs.