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a. A knowledge of the character of the people and a command of their language are great assets. Political methods and motives which govern the actions of foreign people and their political parties, incomprehensible at best to the average North American, are practically beyond the understanding of persons who do not speak their language. If not already familiar •with the language, all officers upon assignment to expeditionary duty should study and acquire a working knowledge of it.

b. Lack of exact information is normal in these operations, as is true in all warfare. Lack of information does not justify withholding orders when needed, nor failing to take action when the situation demands it. The extent to which the intelligence service can obtain information depends largely on the attitude adopted toward the loyal and neutral population. The natives must be made to realize the seriousness of withholding information, but at the same time they must be protected from terrorism.

c. From the very nature of the operation, it is apparent that military force cannot be applied at the stage that would be most advantageous from a tactical viewpoint. Usually turbulent situations become extremely critical before the Government feels justified in taking strong action. Therefore, it is of the utmost importance to determine the exact moment when the decision of a commander should be applied. In a gradually developing situation the “when” is often the essence of the decision. Problems which illustrate the results of too hasty or tardy decisions will be of value in developing thought along these lines. The force commander should determine his mission and inform all subordinates accordingly. Commands should be kept fully informed of any modification of the mission. The decisions of subordinate commanders should be strictly in accordance with the desires of their commanders. For the subordinate commander, the decision may be to determine when he would be justified in opening fire. For example, the patrol leader makes contact with a known camp and at the last moment finds that women camp followers are present in the camp. Shall he fire into the group ? Insofar as it is practicable, subordinate military leaders should be aided in making such decisions by previously announced policies and instructions.

d. Delay in the use of force, and hesitation to accept responsibility for its employment when the situation clearly demands it, will always be interpreted as a weakness. Such indecision will encourage further disorder, and will eventually necessitate measures more severe than those which would have sufficed in the first instance. Drastic punitive measures to induce surrender, or action in the nature of reprisals, may awaken sympathy with the revolutionists. Reprisals and punitive measures may result in the destruction of lives and property of innocent people; such measures may have an adverse effect upon the discipline of our own troops. Good judgment in dealing with such problems calls for constant and careful surveillance. In extreme cases, a commanding officer may be forced to resort to some mild form of reprisal to keep men from taking more severe action on their own initiative. However, even this action is taken with the full knowledge of possible repercussions.

e. In dealing with the native population, only orders which are lawful, specific, and couched in clear, simple language should be issued. They should be firm and just, not impossible of execution nor calculated to work needless hardship upon the recipient. It is well to remember this latter injunction in formulating all orders dealing with the native population. They may be the first to sense that an order is working a needless hardship upon them, and instead of developing their support, friendship, and respect, the opposite effect may result.

f. An important consideration in dealing with the native population in small wars is the psychological approach. A study of the racial and social characteristics of the people is made to determine whether to approach them directly or indirectly, or employ both means simultaneously. Shall the approach be by means of decisions, orders, personal appeals, or admonitions, unconcealed effort, or administrative control, all of which are calculated to attain the desired end? Or shall indirect methods by subtle inspiration, propaganda through suggestion, or undermining the influential leaders of the opposition be attempted ? Direct methods will naturally create some antagonism and encourage certain obstruction, but if these methods of approach are successful the result may be more speedily attained. Indirect approach, on the other hand, might require more time for accomplishment, but the result may be equally effective and probably with less regrettable bitterness.

g. Propaganda plays its part in approach to the people in small wars, since people usually will respond to indirect suggestion but may revolt against direct suggestion. The strength of suggestion is dependent upon the following factors:

(1) Last impression—that is, of several impressions, the last is most likely to be acted upon.

(2) Frequency—that is, repetitions, not one after another but intervals separated by other impressions.

(3) Repetition—this is distinguished from frequency by being repetitions, one after the other, without having other kinds of impressions interspersed.

h. The strongest suggestion is obtained by a combination of “frequency” and “last impressions.” Propaganda at home also plays its part in the public support of small wars. An ordinary characteristic of small wars is the antagonistic propaganda against the campaign or operations in the United States press or legislature. One cannot afford to ignore the possibilities of propaganda. Many authorities believe that the Marine Force should restrict publicity to a minimum in order to prevent the spread of unfavorable and antagonistic propaganda at home. However, it is believed that when representatives of the press demand specific information, it should be given to them, if it is not of a confidential nature or such as will jeopardize the mission. Sometimes marines are pressed with the question: “Why are you here?” The best method to follow when a question of public policy is involved is to refer the individual to appropriate civil authorities.

i. There is an axiom in regular warfare to strike the hardest where the going is the easiest. In small wars also, it is well to strike most vigorously and relentlessly when the going is the easiest. When the opponents are on the run, give them no peace or rest, or time to make further plans. Try to avoid leaving a few straggling leaders in the field at the end, who with their increased mobility, easier means of evasion, and the determination to show strength, attempt to revive interest by bold strokes. At this time, public opinion shows little patience in the enterprise, and accepts with less patience any explanation for the delay necessary to bring the operation to a close.

j. In street fighting against mobs or rioters, the effect of fire is generally not due to the casualties but due to the fact that it demonstrates the determination of the authorities. Unless the use of fire is too long delayed, a single round often is all that is necessary to carry conviction. Naturally one attempts to accomplish his mission without firing but when at the critical moment all such means have failed, then one must fire. One should not make a threat without the intention to carry it out. Do not fire without giving specific warning. Fire without specific warning is only justified when the mob is actively endangering life or property. In disturbances or riots when a mob has been ordered to disperse, it must be feasible for the mob to disperse. Military interventions are actually police functions, although warlike operations often ensue. There is always the possibility of domestic disturbances getting beyond the control of local police. Hence the necessity of employing regular forces as a reserve or reenforcements for varying periods after the restoration of normal conditions.

A;. The personal pride, uniform, and bearing of the marines, their dignity, courtesy, consideration, language, and personality will have an important effect on the civilian attitude toward the forces of occupation. In a country, for example, where the wearing of a coat, like wearing shoes, is the outward and unmistakable sign of a distinct social classification, it is quite unbecoming for officers who accept the hospitality of the native club for a dance, whether local ladies and gentlemen are in evening clothes or not, to appear in their khaki shirts. It. appears that the United States and their representatives have lost a certain amount of prestige when they place themselves in the embarrassing position of receiving a courteous note from a people ordinarily considered backward, inviting attention to this impropriety. On the other hand, care should be exercised not to humiliate the natives. They are usually proud and humiliation will cause resentment which will have an unfavorable reaction. Nothing should be said or done which implies inferiority of the status or of the sovereignty of the native people. They should never be treated as a conquered people.

I. Often the military find themselves in the position of arbiters in differences between rival political factions. This is common in serving on electoral missions. The individual of any faction believes himself in possession of the truth and cannot refrain from affirming that anyone who does not agree with him is entirely in error. Each will attest to the dishonest intentions or stupidity of the other and will attempt by every possible means to carry his point of view irrespective of its merits. They are excitable beings and prone to express their feelings forcibly. They are influenced by personal partiality based upon family or political connections and friendship. Things go by favor. Though they may appear brusque at times they feel a slight keenly, and they know how to respect the susceptibilities of their fellows.

vi. In some revolutions, particularly of economic origin, the followers may be men in want of food. A hungry man will not be inclined to listen to reason and will resort to measures more daring and desperate than under normal conditions. This should be given consideration, when tempted to burn or otherwise destroy private property or stores of the guerrillas.

n. In the interior there are natives who have never been 10 miles from their home, who seldom see strangers, and much less a white man or a foreigner. They judge the United States and the ideals and standards of its people by the conduct of its representatives. It may be no more than a passing patrol whose deportment or language is judged, or it may be fairness in the purchase of a bunch of bananas. The policy of the United States is to pay for value received, and prompt payment of a reasonable price for supplies or services rendered should be made in every instance. Although the natives of the capitals or towns may have a greater opportunity to see foreigners and the forces of occupation, the Marine Corps nevertheless represents the United States to them also, and it behooves every marine to conduct himself accordingly. There is no service which calls for greater exercise of judgment, persistency, patience, tact, and rigid military justice than in small wars, and nowhere is more of the humane and sympathetic side of a military force demanded than in this type of operation.