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1. Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences.—Composition means putting together or combining or grouping. The things that we combine are words. There are three simple ways in which, according to the customs or grammar of our language, words are combined:—

1. Into phrases.

2. Into clauses.

3. Into sentences.

A phrase is a group of words that does not contain a subject and a predicate.

Examples. On the way. In the morning. By the fire. Sailing over the sea.

A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. A clause in which the words do not make complete sense is called a dependent or subordinate clause.

Examples. If I could go. When the sun rose. While I was speaking. Which I saw.

A sentence is a group of words containing at least one subject and one predicate and making complete sense. A sentence is thus a single clause or a group of clauses. In a group of clauses, a clause in which the sense is complete is called an independent or principal clause.

Examples. He started at once. If I could, I should start at once. When the sun rose, the mist disappeared. While I was speaking, the rain fell heavily.

Neither the phrase nor the dependent clause can be used by itself. Each is only a part of a sentence. The first rule of English composition is that we must group our words in sentences.

Exception. Exclamatory words, phrases, or clauses, such as, Fudge! Silence in the ranks! If I could only go!

Exercise 1.—Which are dependent clauses? phrases? sentences? Fill out the phrases and clauses so that they become sentences.

1. A little after noon. 2. I found the sea very calm. 3. If we had kept on board. 4. We should have been all safe. 5. Taking off my outer clothes. 6. When I came to the ship. 7. How to get on board. 8. I spied a small piece of rope. 9. By the help of that rope. 10. That all the ship's provisions were dry. 11. When this was done. 12. Putting them together in the form of a raft. 13. I filled the chests with provisions. 14. Toward the land. 15. My raft went very well. 16. In the mouth of a little river. 17. On the right shore of the creek. 18. I made a tent with the sail. 19. Near the sea. 20. Protected from the heat of the sun.

Exercise 2.—Divide the following passages into sentences. Supply the omitted capitals and the periods or question marks.

1. How late the chimney-swifts are abroad I cannot determine long after I failed to detect any in the air I could hear them in my chimney it was the same rustling sound I heard by day when I could see them coming and going and I know that these birds were leaving and returning when the night was very dark I think they can be classed among the nocturnal species

2. Many years ago there was a cold rain-storm in June for comfort a fire was built on the open hearth instead of in the air-tight stove that stood before it all went well until the night was well advanced suddenly a struggle was heard and suppressed cries after a brief silence there was a shuffling of feet at the doorstep the men went out with a lantern but no one was to be seen the windows were then searched but there was nobody near them the matter was discussed in whispers again and again the noises were heard at last when everybody was roused to a high pitch of excitement the long stovepipe heated by the flames upon the hearth parted at a joint and out flew a sooty and bedraggled little owl no one was superstitious then but suppose the owl had made its way back to the chimney and by this way escaped would not every person present have had vague uncanny feelings would not the house from that time have been haunted

Exercise 3.—1. Write a short passage containing the phrases and clauses used in Exercise 1.

2. Write a short passage containing the following phrases and clauses:—

About noon—going toward my boat—on the sand—the print of a man's naked foot—as if I had seen a ghost—up to a rising ground—to look around—so frightened was I—behind me—every now and then—fancying every stump to be a man.

2. Simple, Complex, and Compound Sentences.—According to the custom or grammar of our language, we may group our words in sentences in three ways. Sentences are, from the point of grammar, of three kinds: simple, complex, and compound.

A simple sentence consists of a single clause.

Examples. The man fell. The birds sing most sweetly at morning and at evening.

The subject or the predicate of a simple sentence, or both, may, however, consist of several parts.

Examples. The man and the child fell. The man slipped and fell. The man and the child slipped and fell.

A complex sentence contains one independent or principal clause and one or more dependent or subordinate clauses.

Examples. It was nearly night when we heard the glad news. Before help could reach the city, it had been captured by the enemy.

A compound sentence contains two or more independent or principal clauses, either with or without dependent or subordinate clauses.

Examples. Every minute seemed a day; every hour was a year. Finally, I dropped into an exhausted slumber, but I was awakened by the sound of bells. The sun, which resembled a ball of fire, touched the horizon and passed beneath it, and the darkness of the tropical night came swiftly over us.

Exercise 4.—Which sentences are simple? complex? compound? In the complex sentences, which clauses are dependent? In the compound sentences, separate the independent clauses from each other. Mention any dependent clauses which you find in the compound sentences.

1. It was now near the beginning of the month of June, and we had twelve weeks of bad weather before us.

2. Our rocky home was greatly improved by a wide porch, which I made along the whole front of our rooms and entrances.

3. The weeks of imprisonment passed so rapidly that no one found time hanging heavy on his hands.

4. As the rainy season drew to a close, the weather for a while became milder.

5. Thunder roared, lightning blazed, torrents rushed toward the sea, which came in raging billows to meet them.

6. Nature resumed her smiling aspect of peaceful beauty; and soon all traces of the ravages of floods and storms disappeared beneath the luxuriant vegetation of the tropics.

7. The recent storms had stirred the ocean to its depths.

8. We crossed the river for a walk along the coast, and presently Fritz observed on a small island something which was long and rounded, resembling a boat bottom upward.

9. The island being steep and rocky, it was necessary to be careful; but we found a good landing place on the farther side.

10. The boys hurried by the nearest way to the beach where lay the great object, which proved to be a huge stranded whale.

11. Look at these glorious shells and coral branches!

12. Did you notice the extreme delicacy of the shells?

13. We were soon ready to return to the boat, but Ernest had a fancy for remaining alone on the island till we came back.

14. The more oil we could obtain the better, for a great deal was used in the large lantern which burnt day and night in the recesses of the cave.

15. It was unpleasant work to cut up blubber.

Exercise 5.—Expand the following simple sentences by substituting clauses for the italicized words or phrases.

Example. I consider him a trustworthy man. I consider him a man who can be trusted.

1. The early bird catches the worm. 2. We started before sunrise. 3. The faithful steward received a reward. 4. I do not doubt your prudence. 5. They lived in a rose-embowered cottage. 6. Santa Claus came at candle-lighting time. 7. We pity the friendless. 8. The prayer of a righteous man availeth much. 9. We should share the burdens of the heavy-laden. 10. She carried a dainty lace-trimmed handkerchief. 11. We lingered in the lilac-scented garden. 12. A kind-hearted man delights in the happiness of others. 13. The traveler wore a fur-lined coat. 14. I enjoy driving a spirited horse. 15. A solemn-looking servant opened the door.

Exercise 6.—Use single words in place of the italicized phrases and clauses in the following sentences.

1. We were stepping toward the west. 2. A shout of joy rang through the woods. 3. The song of the bluebird sounds from the elm. 4. Her wedding gown, which was made of silk, was very expensive. 5. Words of kindness cheer those who are unhappy. 6. We listened to his tales, which were often repeated. 7. His deeds of mercy made him beloved. 8. A look of sadness clouded the face of the leader. 9. The lawyer who is able secures many clients. 10. He visited the country, which had recently been discovered.

Exercise 7.—Substitute, for the italicized words, phrases or clauses with the same meaning.

Example. Contented people are happy (word). People with contented minds are happy (phrase). People who are contented are happy (clause).

1. An honest man is the noblest work of God. 2. A friendly man will have friends. 3. He is said to be a good-natured man. 4. A beautiful child opened the garden-gate. 5. She wore a simple muslin frock. 6. The king wore his golden crown. 7. He lived a noble life. 8. The garden is filled with fragrant blossoms. 9. Old King Cole was a merry old soul. 10. The queen made some delicious tarts. 11. He spoke hastily. 12. You have a very comfortable home. 13. He treated the boy harshly. 14. Take her up tenderly. 15. Beware the fury of a patient man.

Exercise 8.—Combine each set of simple sentences into one complex sentence by changing one of them into a dependent clause.

1. The sun is in the west. Man ceases from labor. 2. The dew is falling. You must not walk in the garden. 3. The clock struck twelve. The door opened to admit Marley's ghost. 4. Mary has not written to me. She has been gone a month. 5. The bee is very industrious. It is always gathering honey. 6. I saw a little red owl. It lives in a hollow tree. 7. We pitched our tents on the shore. Then the sea winds blew. 8. We anchored in the bay. The water was calm. 9. They lived in a village. It was many miles from a railroad. 10. The poor suffered. The good man mourned.

Exercise 9.—Combine the simple sentences, making compound sentences.

1. The wind blew freshly from the shore. The uneasy billows tossed up and down. 2. Eustace sat under a tree. The children gathered round him. 3. Cowards are cruel. The brave love mercy. 4. Charms strike the sight. Merit wins the soul. 5. He invited his guests to remain longer. They wished to start before the heat of the day. 6. The heaven was above his head. The sand was beneath his feet. 7. The water trickled among the rocks. A pleasant breeze rustled in the dry branches. 8. The commander was badly wounded. His men were scattered. 9. It was half-past eight in the evening. The conflict had raged for an hour. 10. The heavens declare the glory of God. The firmament showeth his handiwork.

Exercise 10.—Combine the following statements into simple sentences. In each group express the idea of one statement by a modifying word or phrase.

Examples. 1. She lay down. She was sorrowful. Sorrowfully she lay down. 2. She had no shoes. She had to go barefoot. Having no shoes, she had to go barefoot.

1. He looked back. He saw a cloud of dust. 2. He sprang to his feet. He ran after the messenger. 3. He donned the white cockade. He fought for the exiled prince. 4. We climbed the mountain. The day was cool. 5. We started for home. The sun had set. 6. He lifted his eyes. He looked toward heaven. He thanked God. 7. It was early morning. He rowed across the lake. 8. He left early. He wished to catch the train. 9. He was very studious. He won the scholarship. 10. I went for a ramble. I took little Annie with me. 11. John is a blacksmith. He lives in the village. 12. He shoes horses. He does it skillfully. 13. The bluebird sings. He tells us spring is here. 14. We feared to start. The night was stormy. 15. The watchman was weary. He slept at his post.

Exercise 11.—Combine the following statements by using relative pronouns.

Examples. The flames lit the wreck. They shone on the dead. The flames that lit the wreck shone on the dead.

1. We heard the roll of ponderous wheels. They roused us from our slumbers. 2. Travelers are surprised at the beauty of the spot. They occasionally come upon it by accident. 3. Our throats are choked with the dust. It lies thick along the road. 4. He drank a cup of cold water. This refreshed him. 5. Along came a flock of sheep. They were being driven to market. 6. I went to live in a country village. It was more than a hundred miles from home. 7. The water gushed from a little spring. It sparkled in the sunshine. 8. The villagers were kindly people. They welcomed strangers. 9. I watch the sunrise stealing down the steeple. This stands opposite my chamber window. 10. Up came a gallant youth. He wore a scarf of the rainbow pattern crosswise on his breast. 11. He found under it a slender little boy. The boy wailed bitterly. 12. The Puritan saw the boy's frightened gaze. He endeavored to reassure him. 13. Here is a little outcast. Providence hath put him in our hands. 14. A young man was on his way to Morristown. He was a peddler by trade. 15. A little canary bird sings sweetly. It hangs in its gilded cage at my window.

Exercise 12.—Fill the blanks with conjunctions selected from the following list.

and, also, likewise, moreover, besides, furthermore,

but, yet, however, nevertheless,

or, either, nor, neither,

therefore, hence, then, accordingly.

1. They had been friends in youth—— whispering tongues can poison truth. 2. The waves beside them danced, ---- they outdid the sparkling waves in glee. 3. The sun sank to rest;—— we lingered. 4. I came, I saw—— I conquered. 5. He wanted to live—— he wanted to work. 6. The owl has a backbone;—— it is a vertebrate. 7. Our forest life was rough;—— dangers closed us round. 8. Knowledge comes;—— wisdom lingers. 9. 'Tis winter now—— spring will blossom soon. 10. We had guns; ---- we had an abundance of ammunition. 11. I go, ---- I return. 12. All the rivers run into the sea;—— the sea is not full. 13. It is storming;—— we will not go. 14. He forgave his enemy;—— he was merciful. 15. He is not tired—— he is lazy. 16. The day proved clear;—— we began our journey. 17. They had—— locks to their doors—— bars to their windows. 18. I assured him of my willingness;—— he hesitated. 19. He proved himself honest;—— I trusted him. 20. The storm raged;—— we pushed on.

Exercise 13.—Two ideas are sometimes stated as of equal importance (compound sentence), when one is really dependent upon the other (complex sentence).

Example. "I was on my way to school yesterday morning, and I met my cousin Raymond."

To revise such a sentence as this, decide which clause contains the main idea, and make this the principal clause, putting the subordinate idea in a subordinate clause.

E.g. "As I was on my way to school yesterday morning, I met my cousin Raymond."

Reconstruct the following sentences, making them complex instead of compound:—

1. The sun was hot, and we rested in the shade.

2. We visited Stratford, and here Shakspere lived.

3. The poor man was bent with age, and he staggered under the heavy load.

4. The old woman lived in a little cottage, and it stood on the edge of the woods.

5. I was walking along the country roads, and I saw some wild strawberries.

6. The little boy carried a bundle, and it seemed very heavy.

7. The night was chilly, and we built a fire in the grate.

8. I wished to pass away the time, and I read a newspaper.

9. He was very ambitious, and he wished to become President.

10. She struck a match, and it burned with a feeble light.

3. Variety in the Use of Sentences:—All your sentences must be simple, or complex, or compound; but there is no reason why you should use one of the three kinds in preference to another. If you examine a passage which you think interesting, you will be quite likely to find that some sentences are simple, some complex, and some compound. The variety is pleasing. If all the sentences had been of one kind, the result would have been decidedly monotonous.

Pupils sometimes ask whether they should use long sentences or short sentences. This question is really answered in the preceding paragraph, for a simple sentence is usually shorter than a complex or a compound sentence. The fact is that what we like is variety. Until you are more experienced in composition, it will be well for you, in general, to use comparatively short sentences—that is, sentences of not more than twenty-five or thirty words. You should feel at liberty, however, to follow your own taste in such matters, provided that your sentences are not regularly of about the same length and about the same form, so that your writing is lacking in variety.

Be particularly careful, moreover, to avoid the sentence which is so long as not to be easily understood, such as the following:—

I rose softly, slipped on my clothes, opened the door suddenly, and beheld one of the most beautiful little fairy groups that a painter could imagine, consisting of a boy and two girls, the eldest not more than six, and lovely as seraphs, who were going the rounds of the house, singing at every chamber door, until my sudden appearance frightened them into mute bashfulness, so that they remained for a moment playing on their lips with their fingers, and now and then stealing a shy glance from under their eyebrows, until, as if by one impulse, they scampered away, and as they turned an angle of the gallery, I heard them laughing in triumph at their escape.

See how much this passage is improved when the long sentence is broken up into shorter sentences:—

I rose softly, slipped on my clothes, opened the door suddenly, and beheld one of the most beautiful little fairy groups that a painter could imagine. It consisted of a boy and two girls, the eldest not more than six, and lovely as seraphs. They were going the rounds of the house, singing at every chamber door, but my sudden appearance frightened them into mute bashfulness. They remained for a moment playing on their lips with their fingers, and now and then stealing a shy glance from under their eyebrows, until, as if by one impulse, they scampered away, and as they turned an angle of the gallery, I heard them laughing in triumph at their escape.

Exercise 14.—I. Improve the following passage by combining some of the sentences, making larger complex or compound sentences:—