Читать книгу Elementary Composition - Dorothy Canfield Fisher - Страница 13

Table of Contents

9. The Use of the Paragraph.—Composition is the combining or grouping of words. We group our words in sentences. We also group our sentences in paragraphs.

A paragraph is a group of sentences which together express an important thought. In a way, of course, every sentence expresses a thought—a small thought, so to speak. But experience has shown that the educated mind can best understand written language if it can take in several of these smaller thoughts, in as many sentences, in rapid succession, provided only that these smaller thoughts, when taken together, make up a larger thought. A paragraph is, then, the expression of a large or important thought, made up of several smaller or less important thoughts, expressed in sentences.

Note.—Sometimes, but not often, a single sentence represents such an important thought that it can best stand by itself.

A paragraph is indicated to the eye by the fact that the beginning of the first sentence is placed a little way to the right of the left-hand margin; in other words, it is indented. On the printed page, a paragraph is indented only the space which would be occupied by two or three letters. In a written composition the paragraph is indented about an inch.

Another fact that makes it easy for the eye to recognize a paragraph is that it frequently does not close with the end of a line.

When, therefore, you look at a piece of printed or written composition, you see at once that you are to receive a certain number of thoughts or ideas, each of which is placed in a section or paragraph by itself. In listening to an address or oration you notice the separation between the thoughts by the fact that the speaker usually makes a pause of several seconds to indicate that he has finished the expression of one thought and is now ready to pass on to another.

Note.—In writing a long conversation, it is usually customary to make each speech of each person a paragraph by itself, even if it consists of only a few words. This is because it is of the utmost importance, in reading an account of a conversation, to know just who is speaking.

10. The Beginning.—We group our sentences. But how shall we begin? What sentences shall come first? Usually we shall express our thoughts most clearly if we begin with a sentence that shows in brief what the whole paragraph is about. This is sometimes called the topic sentence, because it is the sentence that states the topic or central idea of the paragraph.

Examples. 1. To the simple-hearted folk who dwelt in that island three thousand years ago, there was never a sweeter spot than sea-girt Ithaca. Rocky and rugged though it may have seemed, yet it was indeed a smiling land embosomed in the laughing sea. There the air was always mild and pure, and balmy with the breath of blossoms; the sun looked kindly down from a cloudless sky, and the storms seldom broke the quiet ripple of the waters which bathed the shores of that island home. On every side but one, the land rose straight up out of the deep sea to meet the feet of craggy hills and mountains crowned with woods. Between the heights were many narrow dells green with orchards, while the gentler slopes were covered with vineyards, and the steeps above them gave pasturage to flocks of long-wooled sheep and mountain-climbing goats.—James Baldwin: A Story of the Golden Age.

[Here the first sentence shows that the paragraph is to be about the beauty of the island.]

2. Upon the ridge above our tent was a third tiny clearing, where some trappers had once made their winter camp. It was there that I watched the rabbits one moonlight night from my seat on an old log, just within the shadow at the edge of the opening. The first arrival came in with a rush. There was a sudden scurry behind me, and over the log he came with a flying leap that landed him on the smooth bit of ground in the middle, where he whirled around and around with grotesque jumps, like a kitten after its tail. Only Br'er Rabbit's tail was too short for him ever to catch it; he seemed rather to be trying to get a good look at it. Then he went off helter-skelter in a headlong rush through the ferns. Before I knew what had become of him, over the log he came again in a marvelous jump, and went tearing around the clearing like a circus horse, varying his performance now by a high leap, now by two or three awkward hops on his hind legs, like a dancing bear. It was immensely entertaining.—William J. Long: Ways of Wood Folk.

[Here the first two sentences show that the paragraph is to be about watching rabbits in a clearing by moonlight.]

3. Soon after he was raised to the dignity of postmaster another piece of good fortune came in his way. Sangamon County covered a territory some forty miles long by fifty wide, and almost every citizen in it seemed intent on buying or selling land, laying out new roads, or locating some future city. John Calhoun, the county surveyor, therefore, found himself with far more work than he could personally attend to, and had to appoint deputies to assist him. Learning the high esteem in which Lincoln was held by the people of New Salem, he wisely concluded to make him a deputy, although they differed in politics. It was a flattering offer, and Lincoln accepted gladly. Of course he knew almost nothing about surveying, but he got a compass and chain, and, as he tells us, "studied Flint and Gibson a little, and went at it." The surveyor, who was a man of talent and education, not only gave Lincoln the appointment, but, it is said, lent him the book in which to study the art. Lincoln carried the book to his friend Graham, and "went at it" to such purpose that in six weeks he was ready to begin the practice of his new profession. Like Washington, who, it will be remembered, followed the same calling in his youth, he became an excellent surveyor.—Helen Nicolay: The Boys' Life of Abraham Lincoln.

[Here the first sentence shows that the paragraph is to be about a new piece of good fortune in Lincoln's life.]

When you are writing a composition in a single paragraph, you will find the topic sentence very useful. In no other way can you so quickly give the reader a notion of what to expect. But it is not necessary always to begin with a topic sentence. What is important is that you begin with a hint that will turn the reader's thoughts in the right direction. Look at the beginnings of several paragraphs in your reader, and you will see how the hint is given.

Exercise 28.—What do the opening sentences in the following paragraphs show?

1. One cold morning early in December, 1800, a party of tourists was crossing the Alps—a pretty large party, too, for there were several thousands of them. Some were riding, some walking, and most of them had knapsacks on their shoulders like many Alpine tourists nowadays. But instead of walking sticks, they carried muskets with bayonets, and dragged along with them some fifty or sixty cannons.

2. There was one among them who seemed quite to enjoy the rough marching and tramping along through the deep snow and cold gray mist. This was a little drummer boy ten years old, whose fresh, rosy face looked very bright and pretty among the grim, scarred visages of the old soldiers. When the cutting wind hurled a shower of snow in his face, he dashed it away with a cheery laugh, and awoke all the echoes with a lively rattle on his drum, till it seemed as if the huge black rocks around were all singing in chorus.

3. Ezekiel made the first plea. His argument was a strong one against all wild and destructive animals in general, and against this woodchuck in particular. He called attention to the damage which had been done already to the growing vegetables, and to the further mischief which might be done if the animal were set free.

4. Between two cliffs lay a deep ravine, with a full stream rolling heavily through it over bowlders and rough ground. It was high and steep, and one side was bare, save at the foot, where clustered a thick, fresh wood, so close to the stream that the mist from the water lay upon the foliage in spring and autumn. The trees stood looking upwards and forwards, unable to move either way.

Exercise 29.—Supply topic sentences for the following paragraphs:—

1. He [George Washington] was very tall, powerfully made, with a strong, handsome face. He was remarkably muscular and powerful. As a boy, he was a leader in all outdoor sports. No one could fling the bar farther than he, and no one could ride more difficult horses.

2. It [the old-fashioned school] is a large, dingy room, with a sanded floor, and is lighted by windows that turn on hinges, and have little diamond-shaped panes of glass. The scholars sit on long benches, with desks before them. At one end of the room is a great fireplace, so spacious that there is room enough for three or four boys to stand in each of the chimney corners.

3. The hall [of the Imperial library] is two hundred and forty-five feet long, with a magnificent dome in the center. The walls are of variegated marble, richly ornamented with gold, and the ceiling and dome are covered with brilliant fresco paintings. The library numbers three hundred thousand volumes and sixteen thousand manuscripts, which are kept in walnut cases, adorned with medallions.

4. [The Country Boy's Vacation.] When school keeps he has only to "do chores and go to school," but between terms there are a thousand things on the farm that have been left for the boys to do. Picking up stones in the pastures and piling them in heaps used to be one of them.

5. [Recess in a Country School.] He is like a deer; he can nearly fly; and he throws himself into play with entire self-forgetfulness, and an energy that would overturn the world if his strength were proportioned to it. For ten minutes the world is absolutely his; the weights are taken off, restraints are loosed, and he is his own master.

Exercise 30.—Write short paragraphs to complete three of the following topic sentences:—

1. From the summit of the hill they saw the sun set.

2. When the flames were out, we saw how great the damage was.

3. In a moment, the storm was upon them.

4. At ten years old, I was taken to help my father in his business.

5. It was a beautiful little craft.

6. There stood Lincoln, a remarkable figure.

7. It was market day.

8. Close by the roadside stands a little schoolhouse.

9. In the year 1776 a remarkable event occurred.

10. His attention was arrested by a dove, pursued by a kingbird.

11. Unity in the Paragraph.—In your study of the sentence, you learned that every good sentence must have unity; that is, that the thoughts included in a sentence must be very closely associated. You are now to learn that every good paragraph must likewise have unity. A paragraph, whether it be long or short, has unity when it treats of but a single topic. The topic sentence will be a great help to you in giving your paragraphs unity. You will not be so apt to jumble into one paragraph material that should be placed in two or three, if you will, before you begin to write, decide upon the subject of your paragraph and make a topic sentence for it. You can test the unity of your paragraph by asking with respect to each sentence that you construct, "Does it relate to the subject of my paragraph?"

Exercise 31.—The following paragraphs lack unity. How many topics are treated in each?

1. In the German land of Würtemberg lies the little town of Marbach. Although this place can be ranked only among the smaller towns, it is charmingly situated on the Neckar stream, that flows on and on, hurrying past villages and old castles to pour its waters into the proud Rhine. It was late in autumn. The leaves still clung to the grapevine, but they were already tinged with red. Rainy gusts swept over the country, and the cold autumn winds increased in violence.

2. Cecelia's home was an old family mansion situated in the midst of a pleasant farm. This was inclosed by willow hedges and a broad and gently murmuring river; nearer the house were groves with rocky knolls and breezy bowers of beech. Cecelia's bosom friend at school was Alice Archer; and after they left school, the love between them rather increased than diminished.

3. Alice Archer was a delicate girl with a pale transparent complexion and large gray eyes that seemed to see visions. Her figure was slight, almost fragile; her hands white and slender. The old house in which she lived with her mother, with four sickly Lombardy poplars in front, suggested gloomy and mournful thoughts. It was one of those places that depress you as you enter. One other inmate the house had, and only one. This was Sally Manchester, the cook. She was an extraordinary woman of large frame and masculine features—one of those who are born to work. A treasure she was to this family.

4. Far out in the sea the water is as blue as the petals of the most beautiful corn-flowers, and as clear as the purest glass. But it is very deep, deeper than any cable will sound; and down there live the sea people. The Sea King had been a widower for many years. His old mother kept house for him and his daughters, the little sea princesses.

5. Shylock, the Jew, lived at Venice. He was a usurer, who had amassed an immense fortune by lending money at great interest to Christian merchants. Being a hard-hearted man, he was much disliked by all good men. Antonio was the kindest man that lived, the best loved, and had the most unwearied spirit in doing courtesies. He was greatly beloved by all his fellow-citizens; but the friend who was nearest to his heart was Bassanio, a noble young Venetian. One day, Bassanio came to Antonio and told him that he wished to repair his fortune by a wealthy marriage with a lady whom he dearly loved.

12. The Body of the Paragraph.—We are to begin with a topic sentence, or with a sentence that gives some hint of what is to follow. And what next? Next comes the body of the paragraph, the real paragraph, the idea we had in mind to express.

The best plan to follow in the making of your paragraph is this:—

1. Write brief notes of your material on the topic you have in mind, and make sure that it all bears directly on the topic.

2. Arrange these notes in the order that would be most natural and intelligible to the reader.

3. Find a good topic sentence.

4. Write the paragraph according to the plan arranged.

Example I. Subject of paragraph: The Long-spurred Columbine.

A. Material: 1. Native of the Rocky Mountains. 2. Blooms abundantly. 3. Grows on shady slopes. 4. Color—blue, white, occasionally pink, never red. 5. Sepals—ovate with slender spurs, spreading; double length of the petals with which they alternate. 6. Petals—round and lighter in color than sepals. 7. Size—three inches broad. 8. Beauty—so great that it has been introduced into gardens.

[In this example, the material has fallen of its own accord into a good order: general statements, 1, 2, 3; color, 4; form, 5, 6; size, 7; beauty, 8. In this case, therefore, it will not be necessary to rearrange the material.]

B. Topic sentence: The long-spurred columbine is an exquisite flower.

C. Whole paragraph: The long-spurred columbine is an exquisite flower. It is a native of the Rocky Mountains, where it blooms abundantly on shady slopes. It often wears a blue gown; it also wears white and occasionally pink, but never red. The ovate sepals, with their slender spurs, are spreading, and double the length of the round, lighter-colored petals with which they alternate. In size it is quite three inches across. It is so beautiful that it has been introduced into many gardens.

Example II. Subject of paragraph: Emigration to California in 1849.

A. Material: 1. In '49, "gold fever" reaches Eastern states. 2. Rush for West. 3. Eighty thousand men reach California before end of year. 4. A few gain riches. 5. The greater part barely make a living by exhaustive toil. 6. Hardships of journey across Isthmus of Panama and across continent (overland route). 7. San Francisco, from an insignificant settlement, sprang into city of twenty thousand inhabitants.

B. Material rearranged: 1. In 1849—"gold fever" reaches Eastern states. 2. Rush for West. 3. Hardships of journey. 4. Eighty thousand men reach California. 5. San Francisco's rapid growth. 6. A few gain riches. 7. The greater number barely make a living by their exhausting toil.

[Notice that 6 has been made 3. The hardships of the journey should naturally be described before the facts about the arrival are given.]

C. Topic sentence: In 1849 the "gold fever" reached the Eastern states, and a great rush of emigration began, both by land and by sea.

D. Whole paragraph: In 1849 the "gold fever" reached the Eastern states, and a great rush of emigration began both by land and by sea. Many died of sickness contracted in crossing the Isthmus of Panama; multitudes more perished on the overland route across the continent. Notwithstanding the hardships and loss of life, over eighty thousand men succeeded in reaching California before the end of the year. From an insignificant settlement San Francisco suddenly sprang into a city of twenty thousand inhabitants. A few of these emigrants gained the riches they so eagerly sought, but the greater part barely made a living by the most exhausting toil.

Example III. Subject of paragraph: President Lincoln's Call for Volunteers.

A. Material: 1. Lincoln calls for seventy-five thousand volunteers April 15, 1861. 2. Wishes them to serve three months. 3. Within thirty-six hours several companies from Pennsylvania had reached Washington. 4. Men of all parties at the North forgot their political quarrels and hastened to the defense of the capital. 5. The Sixth Massachusetts Regiment was the first full regiment to march. 6. Few supposed the war would last longer than three months. 7. The Sixth Massachusetts speedily followed the Pennsylvania regiments.

B. Material rearranged: 1. Lincoln calls for seventy-five thousand volunteers April 15, 1861. 2. For three months' service. 3. Few supposed the war would last longer. 4. Men of all parties at North forgot their political quarrels and hastened to the defense of the capital. 5. Within thirty-six hours several Pennsylvania regiments had reached Washington. 6. The Sixth Massachusetts was the first full regiment to march. 7. The Sixth Massachusetts speedily followed the Pennsylvania regiments.

C. Topic sentence: On April 15, 1861, President Lincoln called for seventy-five thousand volunteers.

D. Whole paragraph: On April 15, 1861, President Lincoln called for seventy-five thousand volunteers. They were to enlist for only three months, for few then supposed the war would last longer than that. In response to the President's call, men of all parties at the North forgot their political quarrels, and hastened to the defense of the capital. Within thirty-six hours several companies from Pennsylvania had reached Washington. They were speedily followed by the Sixth Massachusetts Regiment—the first full regiment to march.

Exercise 32.—Make notes for completing the paragraphs suggested by the following topic sentences. In arranging your notes, you should follow some simple plan. If you are writing a story, for instance, you will naturally follow the order of time, and put things down in the order in which they occurred. If you are writing a description of scenery, you may mention the various objects in the order in which you saw them, or in the order of place, or in the order of importance. If you are explaining something, you will present facts in the order of their importance, and according to their connection with each other, always keeping in mind that you wish to make your explanation simple and clear.

1. The journey had been long and tiresome.

2. At sunset I stood on a hill, overlooking the town.

3. The dew had not disappeared, when, just after sunrise, I started out, fishing rod in hand.

4. Golden-rod is one of the most common and the most beautiful of our wayside flowers.

13. Too Many Paragraphs.—Sometimes matter that might be properly included in one paragraph is spread over two or three paragraphs, as in the following passages:—

I. As the Hurons, to every appearance, had abandoned the pursuit, there was no apparent reason for this excess of caution.

The flight was, however, maintained for hours, until they had reached a bay, near the northern termination of the lake.

Here the canoe was driven upon the beach, and the whole party landed.

II. The Duke of Normandy landed in Sussex, in the year 1066. He had an army of sixty thousand chosen men, for accomplishing his bold enterprise.

Many gallant knights who were not his subjects joined him, in the hope of obtaining fame in arms and estates, if his enterprise should prosper.

Exercise 33.—Write the following selection in three paragraphs. State the subject of each paragraph.

Burton Holmes, the lecturer, says that the Indians of Alaska regard white men and canned goods as so closely associated that they are nearly synonymous.

Wherever the white man is seen, canned meats, fruits, and vegetables are found.

When Mr. Holmes visited Alaska recently, he carried with him a phonograph. This was exhibited to an old chief who had never seen a talking machine before.

When the machine was started, and the sound of a human voice came from the trumpet, the Indian was much interested.

He listened gravely for a time, then approached and peered into the trumpet.

When the machine finished its cylinder and stopped, the Indian pointed at it, and smiling an expansive smile, remarked, "Huh! Him canned white man."

14. The End of a Paragraph.—Occasionally you will find that it is convenient to put at the end of a paragraph a sentence that will sum up your whole idea in a few words. Such a sentence is particularly useful when no topic sentence has been used.

Examples:—

1. The great error in Rip's composition was a strong dislike of all kinds of profitable labor. It could not be from the want of perseverance; for he would sit on a wet rock, with a rod as long and heavy as a lance, and fish all day without a murmur, even though he should not be encouraged by a single nibble. He would carry a fowling piece on his shoulder for hours together, trudging through woods and swamps, and up hill and down dale, to shoot a few squirrels or wild pigeons. He would never refuse to assist a neighbor even in the roughest toil, and was a foremost man at all country frolics for husking Indian corn, or building stone fences; the women of the village, too, used to employ him to run their errands, and to do such little odd jobs as their less obliging husbands would not do for them. In a word, Rip was ready to attend to anybody's business but his own; but as to doing family duty, and keeping his farm in order, he found it impossible.—Washington Irving: Rip Van Winkle.

2. I was fatigued with traveling, rowing, and want of rest; I was very hungry, and my whole stock of cash consisted of a Dutch dollar and about a shilling in copper. This latter I gave the people of the boat for my passage, who at first refused it on account of my rowing; but I insisted on their taking it. A man is sometimes more generous when he has but a little money than when he has plenty, perhaps through fear of being thought to have but little.—Benjamin Franklin: Autobiography.

3. We are a part of the public, and help to make its opinions and give it its power. Laws are practically useless unless the general sentiment of the community sanctions them. The rules of great corporations prohibiting the use of liquor by employees are now enforced as they could not have been a few years ago. They can be enforced now because of a growth of the belief that intoxicants are harmful, and a growing demand that those intrusted with human lives and with great interests shall be clear of brain and reliable of hand. Public opinion is a power, and it is one that we should help to form and help to use.

Exercise 34.—Make notes for paragraphs suggested by the following summary sentences:—

1. In a word, it was a magnificent sight.

2. Thus died a brave soldier.

3. It was a simple but a kindly act.

4. It was too late.

Exercise 35.—Find summary sentences for the paragraphs suggested by the following notes:—

1. Tom obliged to whitewash fence.—Holiday.—Other boys come for him.—Pretends to enjoy his task.—Refuses to let them help him.—Finally accepts bribe and lets the boys do his work. [Summary sentence expressing an opinion of Tom's cleverness.]

2. Autumn storm—rocky coast—high wind—big waves—dashing spray. [Summary sentence expressing your pleasure or discomfort.]

3. Getting up early on a winter morning—unpleasant—dark—cold—sleepy. [Summary sentence indicating your dislike.]

15. Quotations.—This is a convenient place to explain the punctuation of quotations.

Quotations are direct when the exact words of the speaker or writer are repeated. They are indirect when the thought is expressed without using the exact words.

1. Direct. "Good evening, Dance," said the doctor, with a nod. "And good evening to you, Jim. What good wind brings you here?"

2. Indirect. The doctor nodded, said good evening to Dance and Jim, and asked what good wind brought them there.

In writing down a conversation, it is customary to make each speech of each person a paragraph by itself, even if it consists of only a few words.

A direct quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks.

When a direct quotation is broken or separated by words which are not quoted, each part of the quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks.

1. Unbroken. "Have you any money?" asked the baker.

2. Broken. "Run along," said the woman, kindly; "carry your bread home, child."

The first word of a direct quotation should begin with a capital letter.

If the quotation when unbroken is composed of two independent parts separated by a semicolon, a semicolon (not a comma) should follow the author's words when the quotation is broken.

1. Unbroken. Solomon said, "Boast not thyself of to-morrow; for thou knowest not what a day may bring forth."

2. Broken. "Boast not thyself of to-morrow," said Solomon; "for thou knowest not what a day may bring forth."

When a quotation is long or formally introduced, it is usually preceded by a colon, or by a colon and a dash.

1. Nathan Hale, before he was executed, spoke the following words: "I regret that I have only one life to give for my country."

2. In Tennyson's Bugle Song we find the following beautiful lines:—