Читать книгу The History of Piracy and Navigation - Dr. Suk Kyoon Kim - Страница 10

Casbah The Holy Raman Empire’s
Campaigns Against Pirates The region of Gaul (Gallia in Latin, modern-day Western Europe), which had remained divided and ruled by several Germans, became united under Charles the Great (Charlemagne, 742–814) of the Frankish Kingdom. Western Europe had gone through the period of division over the 400 years following the fall of the Western Roman Empire. During that period, it had been ruled by numerous kingdoms. Most of Europe, except Britain, the Iberian Peninsula and the southern Italian Peninsula, became united under the rule of the Franks. Against this historical backdrop, the origin of the European Union (EU) today can trace its roots back to the unification of Western Europe by Charles the Great. Following the unification of Europe through a series of wars, he undertook a military expedition to Rome across the Alps in 800. Pope Leo III greeted and crowned him Holy Roman Emperor and ‘Augustus of the Romans’ in Saint Peter’s Cathedral in the Vatican. The creation of the Holy Roman Empire might be attributed to following historical conditions: conflicts between popes and the Byzantine Empire, and corresponding interests between Charles the Great and Pope Leo III. Even though Saracen pirates came to the front door of Rome – the symbol of Christianity as well as the residence of popes – the Byzantine emperors in Constantinople were helpless. Meanwhile, in 726, the Byzantine emperor instructed the pope to dismantle icons because they were believed to promote idolatry. The pope rejected the instruction and excommunicated the emperor. On this occasion, the emperor and the pope were engaged in serious conflict. In response to excommunication, the emperor encouraged the Longobards to attack the pope. The pope, with no military force to defend himself, had no choice but to rely on the Franks for survival. This was a strategic consideration that prompted the pope to crown Charles the Great Holy Roman Emperor. For his part, Charles the Great, a leader from a barbarian tribe, desired to become the successor of the Roman Empire. In this context, he used ‘Roman’ and ‘Holy’ to express his identity as a Christian and his will as its protector as well. Charles the Great, as the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, was responsible for safeguarding Christianity from the aggression of Muslims. The Franks, who had lived in a state of barbarism north of the Rhine River, were not familiar with sea-faring at all. But Charles the Great created two naval fleets to carry out his responsibility. One was responsible for the coast of southern France, and the other one for the Italian Peninsula and Sicily. These two fleets were quite successful in combating Saracen pirates – so much so that Pope Leo III sent a thank you letter to Charles the Great for protecting Christians. However, the situation totally changed after Charles the Great died in 814. The Holy Roman Empire was taken apart in less than 30 years after his death and divided by his descendants into present day Italy, France and Germany. The two fleets had disappeared, although it is unknown exactly when this happened. Western Europe went back to a time of war. People were engaged only in ongoing wars, and thus had no time to be concerned with the safety of the sea at all. The Battle of Ostia Taking advantage of the chaos in Europe, Saracen pirates took to the sea for piracy again. The pope, without help from guardians of Christians like Charles the Great, had to fight the pirates alone to safeguard Christianity and Rome. At that time, on the Italian Peninsula, a number of coastal city-republics, known as ‘Maritime Republics,’ were thriving. They included Genoa, Amalfi and Naples on the west coast and Venice on the east coast. These coastal city-states were ruled by a small number of merchants who had accumulated wealth by sea-borne trade. They were engaged in direct trade with Muslims in North Africa across the Mediterranean or transit trade with Western Europeans, trading valuable goods that they had brought from China and India through the Middle East. Although they were small city-states, they had naval fleets. For the city-states that lived on sea-borne trade, the security of navigation was vital for their survival itself. Since they had to protect themselves while being engaged in trade with Muslims in North Africa, building strong naval power was an essential issue. Saracen pirates built a large fleet and attempted a massive invasion that went beyond small-scale looting. With the aggression of Saracen pirates on the horizon, Pope Leo IV was determined to fight the pirates firsthand, so he reinforced the fortresses around Rome. He also strung across the Tiber River to deter pirate ships from sailing inland. The pope called in the leaders of Naples and Amalfi to discuss the strategy to combat pirates and formed a league with them. He recruited volunteers and ships across Italy in the name of holy war against Muslims. The league decided to wage a battle off the port of Ostia. In 849, the fleet of the league commanded by the Neapolitan commander confronted Saracen pirate ships face to face. Pope Leo IV addressed the fleet to boost their spirits and prayed for victory. When the battle was about to take place – whether or not thanks to the pope’s prayer – stormy southwest winds struck the Saracen fleet from the back. The fleet of the league swiftly moved back towards the safety of the port, but the Saracen fleet was directly hit by the stormy winds. As a result, the Saracen ships collided with each other and were destroyed and went adrift inshore. Many of them struck on rocks and ultimately sank. When the sea calmed down, the fleet of the league was able to seize the pirate ships and capture the pirates with ease. The battle ended with an enormous victory for the Christians. The Muslim captives were taken to Rome and the pope put them to work building the walls around the Vatican. In preparation for possible Muslim invasions, the pope built the walls to protect Saint Peter’s Cathedral. Ironically, the walls to protect one of the holiest buildings for Christians were built by Saracen pirates. The walls were named after Leo IV. The Battle of Ostia was portrayed by Raphael in the era of the Renaissance. Following the defeat of its large-scale fleet, Saracen pirates went back to their old method of small-fleet looting. They could not afford to give up the enormous income generated from piracy. Conquest of Sicily Saracen pirates, who had remained inactive for quite some time in the aftermath of their defeat in the Battle of Ostia, were reengaged in piracy. The target was the island of Sicily. The pirates launched a full-scale attack on Sicily. Siracusa (the province of modern Syracuse), Sicily was a beautiful and flourishing city, called the ‘Pearl of the Mediterranean.’ Siracusa, which had been under the control of the Byzantine Empire since the fall of the Western Roman Empire, served as an outpost of Christianity in the midst of Muslim aggression. Siracusa had remained unoccupied even in the midst of Islam’s persistent attempts to conquer Sicily, but eventually fell into the hands of Islam in 878. With the collapse of Siracusa, Sicily came under a full control of Saracen pirates. The pirates totally devastated Siracusa in retaliation for the massive damage they sustained during the attacks. In addition to the nobles and soldiers who had resisted them to the last moment, they indiscriminately slaughtered residents, young and old, and captured them for slaves. Churches and icons were ravaged, and the destroyed buildings were rebuilt as mosques. The Muslims’ rule in Sicily lasted for 200 years, until Normans occupied the island in 1072. Following the conquest of Sicily, Saracen pirates’ movements were unconstrained. Their aggression extended to the central and northern as well as southern Italian Peninsula. Through the coast of northern Italy off the Ligurian Sea, Saracen pirates advanced to the coast of southern France. Marseille was attacked twice. The coast of southern France was fully exposed to attack, and the pirates even built a base on the shore. Popes in the Vanguard of Combating
Saracen Pirates Medieval popes in the Dark Ages, regarded as an agent of God on earth, were considered the sole and perfect guardian for Christians. Because the security of Rome was threatened, popes like Leo IV, were directly engaged in military campaigns to combat pirates in the name of safeguarding Christianity. Pope John X, for instance, commanded troops to fight Saracen pirates in southern Italy. He had first formed an alliance with Emperor Constantinus IV of the Byzantine Empire and King Berengar of Italy. Then he recruited volunteers in the name of a holy war against Islam. A large number of people volunteered at the news that the pope was directly recruiting soldiers and would command them to fight pirates. The pope believed that naval forces were likely to be a key to recovering the Garigliano River in central Italy, which was used as a base for Saracen pirate ships. As such, he called for maritime republics such as Naples, Amalfi and Gaeta to join in the holy war. In 916, Pope John X undertook an expedition to recover the Garigliano from the rule of pirates. The pope commanded the troops during a three-month-long series of battles with the marauders. Literally, he was ‘a pope with a sword in his hand.’ The battles ended with the victory of the Christian forces. In a sense, this was the ‘Maritime Crusades’ to combat Saracen pirates. The first of the actual crusades took place in 1096, about 200 years later, under the slogan of ‘God Wills It.’ “It” meant the recovery of the Holy Land from Muslim rule. The campaign for the recovery of the Garigliano might be viewed as the beginning of the crusades, given that the Christians gathered in the name of a holy war to recover territory from the Muslim occupation. Pope John X made a great contribution to combating pirates, but his career was unfortunate. He was ousted by Roman nobles and sent to prison, where he was smothered. Afterwards, Saracen pirates disappeared everywhere from the Garigliano to the Tyrrhenian Sea, ranging from central to southern Italy. However, it did not necessarily mean that the Saracen pirates completely ceased piracy. For internal reasons, they suspended it for a while. Peace was short-lived, however. Christians were under the illusion that the problem had been settled by the victory in the battle. Thus, they were not concerned with preparations for renewed attacks from pirates. They had even made an agreement that they would pay 22,000 pieces of gold annually to the pirates on the condition that they would not attack their merchant ships. Being overconfident in their victory, they relaxed their vigilance. Maritime Republics’ Efforts
to Combat Pirates Saracen pirates sailed across the Mediterranean using seasonal winds in the summer. In this way, they could easily reach Provence in southern France, the coast of Liguria in northern Italy, the coast of Tosca in central Italy and the southern coast of Italy, depending on their departure points on the coast of North Africa. Summer was a fearful season for Italians. The coastal residents had undergone enormous loss of life and damage to properties from Saracen pirate attacks between the 8th and 10th centuries. Maritime republics such as Genoa, Pisa, Naples, Amalfi and Venice prospered after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. They were small coastal city-states, typically with populations of less than 100,000 – Genoa and Pisa had less than 50,000. They had no choice but to engage in sea-faring for livelihood because of the shortage of farmland in their territories. These republics, which lived on sea-borne trade, had naval fleets to protect their merchant fleets and homeland from attack by sea. During the period of the crusades, Genoa, Pisa and Venice had built up relatively large fleets composed of 100 to 200 warships. In fact, they were a significant driving force that had sustained the crusades. Interestingly, the more closely a republic was located to North Africa, the earlier it developed into a powerful maritime republic. This is likely because they had to build up their ocean-going capabilities to help fend off pirate attacks. Since Venice was located far up the coast of the Adriatic Sea, it was harder for Saracen pirates to access than other republics. For that reason, the development of Venice into a maritime state came later than others. Venice was founded by Romans who had escaped from the aggression of Huns that had invaded in 452. Seeing that they had nowhere else to flee when they arrived on the northeast coast, the escapees desperately built a city in a swamp. It was Venice, nicknamed the ‘City of Water.’