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Chapter 7

The Rise of the Iberian Peninsula

Iberians: Main Initiators
of the Age of Discovery

The Iberians, who had been in the outer edge of Europe, by no means missed an opportunity to explore new trade routes to the Orient. Geographically, the Iberian Peninsula has open access to the Atlantic. Situated on the boundary of the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, the Iberian Peninsula could take geographical and commercial advantage of transit trade between the Orient and Europe.

The Iberians boldly rode the back of fate – when fate approached, they grabbed it by the bridle and held on, rushing forward. That is, they created their new destiny of becoming the main player of the Age of Discovery. As a result, the Iberians could emerge as the main players of the new Oriental trade, taking the place of Venice and Genoa, which had dominated Oriental trade through the Mediterranean. Indeed, the pioneers in creating the new destiny were the Portuguese. A new era often gives birth to new heroes. But, sometimes it’s the pioneers who have special insight into the trends of an era that are the ones who are best able to create a new era.

Prince Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) of Portugal was the right figure at the right time. He was full of passion for new knowledge and the exploration of the unknown world. While serving as governor of Ceuta, which had been conquered by his father, Prince Henry sponsored Portuguese explorations. At the age of 25, he returned to Portugal and opened a school of navigators, ship builders, astronomers, cartographers, craftsmen and explorers in Sagres, situated in the southwestern part of Portugal. He collected a variety of travel books, maps and navigation materials. The international community for information, knowledge and creation was founded in Sagres. The Sagres school would play a pivotal role in the expansion of Portugal, along with Lisbon.

The navigation school was made possible because the Portuguese had developed a spirit of tolerance toward different religions, cultures and races during the rule of Arabs over previous centuries. Their open-mindedness allowed them to learn about the knowledge and technology of Arabs and to employ Arab scholars without hesitation. They made use of the wealth and knowledge of Jews as well, and on the basis of this openness, the Portuguese were successful at creating a cocktail of civilizations that mingled Christianity with Islam and Judaism.

At the age of 26, Prince Henry was appointed Grand Master of the Military Order of Christ. This had a significant implication in the history of Portuguese expansions. He became a key figure for the explorations of the Atlantic because he was able to use the human and material resources of the Military Order of Christ, sponsored by the pope. The Military Order of Christ, as with other religious organizations, established a well-organized chain of command. As he deftly exercised his power, he was able to mobilize the resources necessary for the exploration of the Atlantic, while fighting opposition voices that claimed the voyages were reckless and unprofitable.

The pope promised that he would regard the expeditions of the Portuguese Military Order of Christ as crusades and grant an indulgence to those partaking in the expeditions. With the support of the pope, who held the ultimate authority in Christendom, Prince Henry justified the expeditions by saying that they were businesses to convert pagans to Christianity.

Sagres School

Jewel of Iberia: Caravel

In order for the Iberians to take to the Atlantic, new ships suitable for ocean-going navigation, durable enough to withstand strong waves and harsh sea conditions, were required. The traditional galleons with masts with a triangular sail, primarily powered by rowers, could not sail across oceans. As such, ocean-going sailing required sailing ships which could use the winds. In early expeditions sponsored by Prince Henry, small sailing ships, referred to as barques, with three or more square-rigged masts, were commonly used. However, the barque had a decisive drawback: It was not suitable for sailing windward. The new type of ship, the caravel, also known as the ‘Jewel of Iberia,’ was developed by the ship builders in Sagres to address the drawback. The caravel was the product of efforts made by Prince Henry that combined the rigging of Viking ships with Muslims’ ships. The early caravels, which had two square-rigged masts, were highly maneuverable in sailing windward. As voyages grew longer, caravels with three masts became common. The salient feature of the caravel was its central steering gear, which allowed crewmen to steer in a pilot house and greatly improved maneuverability. The attachment of central steering gear was somewhat like the fins of fish.

With ocean-going sailing increasing, caravels, originally developed for sailing inshore, demonstrated their limitations in voyages across oceans. Thus the square-rigged caravel, known as caravela redonda, was newly created by the Portuguese in the second half of the 15th century. The caravela redonda was larger in size than the caravel. To improve its ability to withstand ocean-going voyages, its foremast was square-rigged, and the main and stern masts were lateen-rigged (triangular sail). A triangular sail allowed a ship to tack against the wind. The lateen evolved out of the dominant square rig by setting the sails more fore-and-aft – along the line of the keel, while tailoring the luff and leech. Indeed, the evolution of the caravela redonda was a great revolution in shipbuilding history in that it connected the Atlantic world together and made the Age of Discovery possible.

Caravela Redonda

Guns had been mounted on the decks of ships since the 14th century. However, the improvements of the guns starting in the mid-14th century considerably increased their weight, forcing ships to mount them low on the hull for stability. A gun port – an opening in the side of the hull of a ship – above the waterline, allowed the muzzle of artillery pieces mounted on the gun deck to fire outside. Ships featuring gun ports were said to be pierced, since the ports were cut through the hull after the construction. Piercing gun ports had grown into a common practice by 1501. As a result, a heavier armament for large ships was possible. Even with more cannons in the hull, the stability and maneuverability of a ship were better than if cannons had been mounted on the deck. A musket, which was a muzzle-loaded, smoothbore long gun, capable of penetrating heavy armor, was developed in Sagres. Caravels, cannons mounted in the hull and muskets were new forces that ushered in the Age of Discovery.

Searching for the Golden State

For ocean-going sailing, navigational aids such as the compass and quadrant were essential. Prince Henry instructed the leading engineers, invited from Italy, to devise navigational aids. He also employed experienced Italian sailors. While Prince Henry had ruled Ceuta, he learned of an interesting story about Africa. It was about the legendary Christian empire that the priest king Prester John had built as well as the Golden State that was presumed to be situated somewhere south of the empire. Prince Henry, motivated by religious passion and economic gains as well, sent expeditions to the coast of West Africa, upon the completion of preparations for voyages.